Cold-season temperatures in the European Alps during the past millennium: variability, seasonality and recent trends

This study presents a proxy-based, quantitative reconstruction of cold-season (mean October to May, TOct–May) air temperatures covering nearly the entire last millennium (AD 1060–2003, some hiatuses). The reconstruction was based on subfossil chrysophyte stomatocyst remains in the varved sediments of high-Alpine Lake Silvaplana, eastern Swiss Alps (46°27’N, 9°48′W, 1791 m a.s.l.). Previous studies have demonstrated the reliability of this proxy by comparison to meteorological data. Cold-season air temperatures could therefore be reconstructed quantitatively, at a high resolution (5-yr) and with high chronological accuracy. Spatial correlation analysis suggests that the reconstruction reflects cold season climate variability over the high- Alpine region and substantial parts of central and western Europe. Cold-season temperatures were characterized by a relatively stable first part of the millennium until AD 1440 (2σ of 5-yr mean values = 0.7 °C) and highly variable TOct–May after that (AD 1440–1900, 2σ of 5-yr mean values = 1.3 °C). Recent decades (AD, 1991-present) were unusually warm in the context of the last millennium (exceeding the 2σ-range of the mean decadal TOct–May) but this warmth was not unprecedented. The coolest decades occurred from AD 1510–1520 and AD 1880–1890. The timing of extremely warm and cold decades is generally in good agreement with documentary data representing Switzerland and central European lowlands. The transition from relatively stable to highly variable TOct–May coincided with large changes in atmospheric circulation patterns in the North Atlantic region. Comparison of reconstructed cold season temperatures to the North Atlantic Oscillation index (NAO) during the past 1000 years showed that the relatively stable and warm conditions at the study site until AD 1440 coincided with a persistent positive mode of the NAO. We propose that the transition to large TOct–May variability around AD 1440 was linked to the subsequent absence of this persistent zonal flow pattern, which would allow other climatic drivers to gain importance in the study area. From AD 1440–1900, the similarity of reconstructed TOct–May to reconstructed air pressure in the Siberian High suggests a relatively strong influence of continental anticyclonic systems on Alpine cold season climate parameters during periods when westerly airflow was subdued. A more continental type of atmospheric circulation thus seems to be characteristic for the Little Ice Age in Europe. Comparison of Toct–May to summer temperature reconstructions from the same study site shows that, as expected, summer and cold season temperature trends and variability differed completely throughout nearly the entire last 1000 years. Since AD 1980, however, summer and cold season temperatures show a simultaneous, strong increase, which is unprecedented in the context of the last millennium. We suggest that the most likely explanation for this recent trend is anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) forcing.

Far lateral lumbar disc extrusion: MRI findings and surgical treatment

This case report describes the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings and the treatment of a far lateral extrusion of disc material at the sixth and seventh lumbar vertebrae (L6-L7) in a five-year-old male Alpine Dachsbracke dog referred to our hospital for investigation of the complaint of a one week progressive lameness in the left pelvic limb and poorly localized back pain. An extra-foraminal left lateral disc herniation impinging on the sixth lumbar nerve root was diagnosed by MRI examinations. Due to the far lateral position of the extruded disc material on MRI, surgical opening of the spinal canal was not necessary. Removal of the herniated soft disc material impinging on the L6 nerve root, and fenestration of the L6-L7 disc was performed laterally. To the author's knowledge 'far-lateral' disc herniation beyond the neuroforamen without any spinal canal contact has not been described in dogs until now. A complete recovery with no evidence of pain was achieved only after a couple of weeks after surgery. We acknowledge that it is possible that other pathological mechanisms may have contributed to clinical signs and to a delayed recovery.

Visual exploration in Parkinson's disease and Parkinson's disease dementia

Parkinson's disease, typically thought of as a movement disorder, is increasingly recognized as causing cognitive impairment and dementia. Eye movement abnormalities are also described, including impairment of rapid eye movements (saccades) and the fixations interspersed between them. Such movements are under the influence of cortical and subcortical networks commonly targeted by the neurodegeneration seen in Parkinson's disease and, as such, may provide a marker for cognitive decline. This study examined the error rates and visual exploration strategies of subjects with Parkinson's disease, with and without cognitive impairment, whilst performing a battery of visuo-cognitive tasks. Error rates were significantly higher in those Parkinson's disease groups with either mild cognitive impairment (P = 0.001) or dementia (P < 0.001), than in cognitively normal subjects with Parkinson's disease. When compared with cognitively normal subjects with Parkinson's disease, exploration strategy, as measured by a number of eye tracking variables, was least efficient in the dementia group but was also affected in those subjects with Parkinson's disease with mild cognitive impairment. When compared with control subjects and cognitively normal subjects with Parkinson's disease, saccade amplitudes were significantly reduced in the groups with mild cognitive impairment or dementia. Fixation duration was longer in all Parkinson's disease groups compared with healthy control subjects but was longest for cognitively impaired Parkinson's disease groups. The strongest predictor of average fixation duration was disease severity. Analysing only data from the most complex task, with the highest error rates, both cognitive impairment and disease severity contributed to a predictive model for fixation duration [F(2,76) = 12.52, P ≤ 0.001], but medication dose did not (r = 0.18, n = 78, P = 0.098, not significant). This study highlights the potential use of exploration strategy measures as a marker of cognitive decline in Parkinson's disease and reveals the efficiency by which fixations and saccades are deployed in the build-up to a cognitive response, rather than merely focusing on the outcome itself. The prolongation of fixation duration, present to a small but significant degree even in cognitively normal subjects with Parkinson's disease, suggests a disease-specific impact on the networks directing visual exploration, although the study also highlights the multi-factorial nature of changes in exploration and the significant impact of cognitive decline on efficiency of visual search.

Caregiver Responses to the Language Mixing of a Young Trilingual

The situation once described by Hoffmann (1985), in which children grow up exposed to three languages from an early age, is a reality for an increasing number of families. In Europe – as elsewhere – greater mobility is leading to greater numbers of mixed-language couples (Piller 2002), and, by extension, multilingual families. For such families, questions concerning the acquisition and maintenance of three or more languages in a natural environment are of direct relevance. Researchers in bilingualism have already pointed out the importance of social context for the acquisition of two languages in childhood, focusing in particular on the quantity and quality of exposure to the languages (De Houwer 1990; Döpke 1992; Okita 2002; Lanza 2004) or the prestige of the languages (Lambert 1977). In this paper, I will make use of the insights gained by such researchers and test them in a trilingual setting. The paper will focus mainly on one aspect, namely the conversational style of parents and caretakers. The data come from research being carried out in Switzerland and consist of 33 interviews with multilingual families, as well as case studies of two trilingual children. The findings attest to the importance of conversational style, but at the same time indicate that a number of further factors are also of great significance.

Paleo erosion rates and climate shifts recorded by Quaternary cut-and-fill sequences in the Pisco valley, central Peru

Fluvial cut-and-fill sequences have frequently been reported from various sites on Earth. Nevertheless, the information about the past erosional regime and hydrological conditions have not yet been adequately deciphered from these archives. The Quaternary terrace sequences in the Pisco valley, located at ca. 13°S, offer a manifestation of an orbitally-driven cyclicity in terrace construction where phases of sediment accumulation have been related to the Minchin (48–36 ka) and Tauca (26–15 ka) lake level highstands on the Altiplano. Here, we present a 10Be-based sediment budget for the cut-and-fill terrace sequences in this valley to quantify the orbitally forced changes in precipitation and erosion. We find that the Minchin period was characterized by an erosional pulse along the Pacific coast where denudation rates reached values as high as 600±80 mm/ka600±80 mm/ka for a relatively short time span lasting a few thousands of years. This contrasts to the younger pluvial periods and the modern situation when 10Be-based sediment budgets register nearly zero erosion at the Pacific coast. We relate these contrasts to different erosional conditions between the modern and the Minchin time. First, the sediment budget infers a precipitation pattern that matches with the modern climate ca. 1000 km farther north, where highly erratic and extreme El Niño-related precipitation results in fast erosion and flooding along the coast. Second, the formation of a thick terrace sequence requires sufficient material on catchment hillslopes to be stripped off by erosion. This was most likely the case immediately before the start of the Minchin period, because this erosional epoch was preceded by a >50 ka-long time span with poorly erosive climate conditions, allowing for sufficient regolith to build up on the hillslopes. Finally, this study suggests a strong control of orbitally and ice sheet forced latitudinal shifts of the ITCZ on the erosional gradients and sediment production on the western escarpment of the Peruvian Andes at 13° during the Minchin period.

Use of audiovisual messages from land user to land user for sharing knowledge about SLM: experiences from a pilot project in Kenya and Tajikistan

The global World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies (WOCAT) initiative has developed standardised tools and methods to compile and evaluate knowledge available about SLM. This knowledge is now combined and enriched with audiovisual information in order to give a voice to land users, reach a broad range of stakeholders, and assist in scaling up SLM to reverse trends of degradation, desertification, and drought. Five video products, adapted to the needs of different target groups, are created and embedded in already existing platforms for knowledge sharing of SLM such as the WOCAT database and Google Earth application. A pilot project was carried out in Kenya and Tajikistan to verify ideas and tools while at the same time assessing the usefulness of the suggested products on the ground. Video has the potential to bridge the gap between different actor groups and enable communication and sharing on different levels and scales: locally, regionally, and globally. Furthermore, it is an innovative tool to link local and scientific knowledge, raise awareness, and support advocacy for SLM. Keywords: Sustainable Land Management (SLM), knowledge sharing, audiovisual messages, video, World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies (WOCAT)

Teaching video neuroimages: Beevor sign: when the umbilicus is pointing to neurologic disease

A 57-year-old man with genetically proven facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHMD 1A) demonstrated Beevor sign (video on the Neurology Web site at www.neurology.org). The upward movement of the umbilicus in a supine patient flexing the neck or sitting up is named after the British neurologist Charles Edward Beevor (1854-1908). He described a "marked elevation of the umbilicus in the act of sitting up" due to a paralyzed infraumbilical part of the rectus abdominis muscle, indicating a lesion of the spinal cord between the segments T10 and T12 or its nerve roots.(1) Beevor sign may also be present, as in our patient, in myopathies affecting the abdominal muscles, particularly in FSHMD, in which predominant involvement of the lower part of the rectus abdominis muscle is typical.(2).

Plant diversity and ecosystem multifunctionality peak at intermediate levels of woody cover in global drylands

Aim The global spread of woody plants into grasslands is predicted to increase over the coming century. While there is general agreement regarding the anthropogenic causes of this phenomenon, its ecological consequences are less certain. We analysed how woody vegetation of differing cover affects plant diversity (richness and evenness) and the surrogates of multiple ecosystem processes (multifunctionality) in global drylands, and how these change with aridity. Location Two hundred and twenty-four dryland sites from all continents except Antarctica, widely differing in their environmental conditions (from arid to dry-subhumid sites) and relative woody cover (from 0 to 100). Methods Using a standardized field survey, we measured the cover, richness and evenness of perennial vegetation. At each site, we measured 14 soil variables related to fertility and the build-up of nutrient pools. These variables are critical for maintaining ecosystem functioning in drylands. Results Species richness and ecosystem multifunctionality were strongly related to woody vegetation, with both variables peaking at a relative woody cover (RWC) of 41–60. This relationship shifted with aridity. We observed linear positive effects of RWC in dry-subhumid sites. These positive trends shifted to hump-shaped RWC–diversity and multifunctionality relationships under semi-arid environments. Finally, hump-shaped (richness, evenness) or linear negative (multifunctionality) effects of RWC were found under the most arid conditions. Main conclusions Plant diversity and multifunctionality peaked at intermediate levels of woody cover, although this relationship became increasingly positive in wetter environments. This comprehensive study accounts for multiple ecosystem attributes across a range of levels of woody cover and environmental conditions. Our results help us to reconcile contrasting views of woody encroachment found in the current literature and can be used to improve predictions of the likely effects of encroachment on biodiversity and ecosystem services.

Action of food preservatives on 14-days dental biofilm formation, biofilm vitality and biofilm-derived enamel demineralisation in situ

AIMS The aims of this double-blind, controlled, crossover study were to assess the influence of food preservatives on in situ dental biofilm growth and vitality, and to evaluate their influence on the ability of dental biofilm to demineralize underlying enamel over a period of 14 days. MATERIALS AND METHODS Twenty volunteers wore appliances with six specimens each of bovine enamel to build up intra-oral biofilms. During four test cycles of 14 days, the subjects had to place the appliance in one of the assigned controls or active solutions twice a day for a minute: negative control 0.9 % saline, 0.1 % benzoate (BA), 0.1 % sorbate (SA) and 0.2 % chlorhexidine (CHX positive control). After 14 days, the biofilms on two of the slabs were stained to visualize vital and dead bacteria to assess biofilm thickness (BT) and bacterial vitality (BV). Further, slabs were taken to determine mineral loss (ML), by quantitative light-induced laser fluorescence (QLF) and transversal microradiography (TMR), moreover the lesion depths (LD). RESULTS Nineteen subjects completed all test cycles. Use of SA, BA and CHX resulted in a significantly reduced BV compared to NaCl (p < 0.001). Only CHX exerted a statistically significant retardation in BT as compared to saline. Differences between SA and BA were not significant (p > 0.05) for both parameters. TMR analysis revealed the highest LD values in the NaCl group (43.6 ± 44.2 μm) and the lowest with CHX (11.7 ± 39.4 μm), while SA (22.9 ± 45.2 μm) and BA (21.4 ± 38.5 μm) lay in between. Similarly for ML, the highest mean values of 128.1 ± 207.3 vol% μm were assessed for NaCl, the lowest for CHX (-16.8 ± 284.2 vol% μm), while SA and BA led to values of 83.2 ± 150.9 and 98.4 ± 191.2 vol% μm, respectively. With QLF for both controls, NaCl (-33.8 ± 101.3 mm(2) %) and CHX (-16.9 ± 69.9 mm(2) %), negative values were recorded reflecting a diminution of fluorescence, while positive values were found with SA (33.9 ± 158.2 mm(2) %) and BA (24.8 ± 118.0 mm(2) %) depicting a fluorescence gain. These differences were non-significant (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION The biofilm model permited the assessment of undisturbed oral biofilm formation influenced by antibacterial components under clinical conditions for a period of 14 days. An effect of BA and SA on the demineralization of enamel could be demonstrated by TMR and QLF, but these new findings have to be seen as a trend. As part of our daily diet, these preservatives exert an impact on the metabolism of the dental biofilm, and therefore may even influence demineralization processes of the underlying dental enamel in situ.

Influence of Martian crustal magnetic anomalies on the emission of energetic neutral hydrogen atoms

We analyze the data on hydrogen energetic neutral atoms (ENAs) emissions from the dayside of Mars, recorded by a Neutral Particle Detector of the Analyzer of Space Plasmas and Energetic Atoms aboard Mars Express from 14 March to 9 July 2004. We first identify and analyze events of the ENA flux enhancement coinciding with the presence of the crustal magnetic anomalies on the dayside of Mars. We then backtrace the ENA emissions to the lower altitudes (source region) and build up an average map of the flux intensities in the geographic coordinates with all the available data. The map shows a peak-to-valley ENA flux enhancement of 40%–90% close to the crustal magnetic anomaly regions. These results suggest the influence of the magnetic anomalies on the ENA emission from the dayside of Mars. The enhancement may result from the deviation of the highly directional plasma flow above anomalies toward the detectors such that more charge exchange ENAs would be recorded. Alternatively, higher exospheric densities above the anomalies would also result in an increase of the charge exchange ENA flux.

Enduring effects of evidence-based psychotherapies in acute depression and anxiety disorders versus treatment as usual at follow-up — A longitudinal meta-analysis

This meta-analysis examined the enduring efficacy of evidence-based psychotherapies (EBP) in comparison to treatment as usual (TAU) by examining effects from termination to follow-up for acute anxiety and depression in an adult outpatient population. It was hypothesized that EBPs might extend their efficacy at follow-up assessment (Tolin, 2010). METHOD: Longitudinal multilevel meta-analyses were conducted that examined the magnitude of difference between EBP and TAU. Targeted (disorder-specific) outcomes were examined, along with dropout rates at follow-up assessments. RESULTS: A total of 15 comparisons (including 30 repeated effect sizes [ES]) were included in this meta-analysis (average of 8.9 month follow-up). Small to moderate ES differences were found to be in favor of EBPs at 0-4 month assessments (Hedges' g=0.40) and up to 12-18 month assessments (g=0.20), indicating no extended efficacy at follow-up. However, the TAU-conditions were heterogeneous, ranging from absence of minimal mental health treatment to legitimate psychotherapeutic interventions provided by trained professionals, the latter of which resulted in smaller ES differences. Furthermore, samples where substance use comorbidities were not actively excluded indicated smaller ES differences. TAU-conditions produced slightly higher dropout rates than EBP-conditions. CONCLUSION: Findings indicate small and no extended superiority of EBP for acute depression and anxiety disorders in comparison to TAU at follow-up assessment. There are a limited number of studies investigating the transportability and lasting efficacy of EBP compared to TAU, especially to TAU with equivalent conditions between treatment groups.

From stellar nebula to planetesimals

Context. Solar and extrasolar comets and extrasolar planets are the subject of numerous studies in order to determine their chemical composition and internal structure. In the case of planetesimals, their compositions are important as they govern in part the composition of future planets. Aims. The present works aims at determining the chemical composition of icy planetesimals, believed to be similar to present day comets, formed in stellar systems of solar chemical composition. The main objective of this work is to provide valuable theoretical data on chemical composition for models of planetesimals and comets, and models of planet formation and evolution. Methods. We have developed a model that calculates the composition of ices formed during the cooling of the stellar nebula. Coupled with a model of refractory element formation, it allows us to determine the chemical composition and mass ratio of ices to rocks in icy planetesimals throughout in the protoplanetary disc. Results. We provide relationships for ice line positions (for different volatile species) in the disc, and chemical compositions and mass ratios of ice relative to rock for icy planetesimals in stellar systems of solar chemical composition. From an initial homogeneous composition of the nebula, a wide variety of chemical compositions of planetesimals were produced as a function of the mass of the disc and distance to the star. Ices incorporated in planetesimals are mainly composed of H2O, CO, CO2, CH3OH, and NH3. The ice/rock mass ratio is equal to 1 ± 0.5 in icy planetesimals following assumptions. This last value is in good agreement with observations of solar system comets, but remains lower than usual assumptions made in planet formation models, taking this ratio to be of 2–3.

The Exploitation of Versatile Building Blocks for the Self-Assembly of Novel Molecular Magnets

Using molecular building blocks to self-assemble lattices supporting long-range magnetic order is currently an active area of solid-state chemistry. Consequently, it is the realm of supramolecular chemistry that synthetic chemists are turning to in order to develop techniques for the synthesis of structurally well-defined supramolecular materials. In recent years we have investigated the versatility and usefulness of two classes of molecular building blocks, namely, tris-oxalato transition-metal (M. Pilkington and S. Decurtins, in “Magnetoscience—From Molecules to Materials,” Wiley–VCH, 2000), and octacyanometalate complexes (Pilkington and Decurtins, Chimia 54, 593 (2001)), for applications in the field of molecule-based magnets. Anionic, tris-chelated oxalato building blocks are able to build up two-dimensional honeycomb-layered structural motifs as well as three-dimensional decagon frameworks. The discrimination between the crystallization of the two- or three-dimensional structures relies on the choice of the templating counterions (Decurtins, Chimia 52, 539 (1998); Decurtins et al. Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst. 273, 167 (1995); New J. Chem. 117 (1998)). These structural types display a range of ferro, ferri, and antiferromagnetic properties (Pilkington and Decurtins, in “Magnetoscience—From Molecules to Materials”). Octacyanometalate building blocks self-assemble to afford two new classes of cyano-bridged compounds namely, molecular clusters and extended three dimensional networks (J. Larionova et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 39, 1605 (2000); Pilkington et al., in preparation). The molecular cluster with a MnII9MoV6 core has the highest ground state spin value, S=51/2, reported to-date (Larionova et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 39, 1605 (2000)). In the high-temperature regime, the magnetic properties are characterized by ferromagnetic intracluster coupling. In the magnetic range below 44 K, the magnetic cluster signature is lost as possibly a bulk behavior starts to emerge. The three-dimensional networks exhibit both paramagnetic and ferromagnetic behavior, since the magnetic properties of these materials directly reflect the electronic configuration of the metal ion incorporated into the octacyanometalate building blocks (Pilkington et al., in preparation). For both the oxalate- and cyanide-bridged materials, we are able to manipulate the magnetic properties of the supramolecular assemblies by tuning the electronic configurations of the metal ions incorporated into the appropriate molecular building blocks (Pilkington and Decurtins, in “Magnetoscience—From Molecules to Materials,” Chimia 54, 593 (2000)).

Threat of alveolar echinococcosis to public health - a challenge for Europe

Alveolar echinococcosis (AE) is a neglected 'malignant' parasitic disease. The European endemic area of Echinococcus multilocularis in foxes is larger than previously anticipated, and there is new evidence that both fox populations and the prevalence of E. multilocularis have increased in many areas, indicating increased pressure for infection with E. multilocularis eggs in intermediate and accidental hosts, including humans. This may result in more human AE cases within the next decades. Current numbers of both immunocompetent and immunocompromised AE patients, and the anticipated future increase, call for scaling-up research to rapidly improve the development and implementation of prevention measures, early diagnosis, and curative treatment of human AE.

Posterior Vertical Bite Reconstructions of Erosively Worn Dentitions and the "Stamp Technique" - A Case Series with a Mean Observation Time of 40 Months

PURPOSE In the present case series, the authors report on seven cases of erosively worn dentitions (98 posterior teeth) which were treated with direct resin composite. MATERIALS AND METHODS In all cases, both arches were restored by using the so-called stamp technique. All patients were treated with standardized materials and protocols. Prior to treatment, a waxup was made on die-cast models to build up the loss of occlusion as well as ensure the optimal future anatomy and function of the eroded teeth to be restored. During treatment, teeth were restored by using templates of silicone (ie, two "stamps," one on the vestibular, one on the oral aspect of each tooth), which were filled with resin composite in order to transfer the planned, future restoration (ie, in the shape of the waxup) from the extra- to the intraoral situation. Baseline examinations were performed in all patients after treatment, and photographs as well as radiographs were taken. To evaluate the outcome, the modified United States Public Health Service criteria (USPHS) were used. RESULTS The patients were re-assessed after a mean observation time of 40 months (40.8 ± 7.2 months). The overall outcome of the restorations was good, and almost exclusively "Alpha" scores were given. Only the marginal integrity and the anatomical form received a "Charlie" score (10.2%) in two cases. CONCLUSION Direct resin composite restorations made with the stamp technique are a valuable treatment option for restoring erosively worn dentitions.