Music, perceived arousal, and intensity: psychophysiological reactions to Chopin's "Tristesse"

The present study investigates the relation of perceived arousal (continuous self-rating), autonomic nervous system activity (heart rate, heart rate variability) and musical characteristics (sound intensity, musical rhythm) upon listening to a complex musical piece. Twenty amateur musicians listened to two performances of Chopin's "Tristesse" with different rhythmic shapes. Besides conventional statistical methods for analyzing psychophysiological reactions (heart rate, respiration rate) and musical variables, semblance analysis was used. Perceived arousal correlated strongly with sound intensity; heart rate showed only a partial response to changes in sound intensity. Larger changes in heart rate were caused by the version with more rhythmic tension. The low-/high-frequency ratio of heart rate variability increased-whereas the high frequency component decreased-during music listening. We conclude that autonomic nervous system activity can be modulated not only by sound intensity but also by the interpreter's use of rhythmic tension. Semblance analysis enables us to track the subtle correlations between musical and physiological variables.

[The influence of the socio-economic structure of the breeding farms of Franches-Montagnes horses on the conditions of husbandry]

The socio-economic structure of the breeding farms of Franches-Montagnes horses (FM) in Switzerland is evaluated on the basis of an investigation carried out in 2002 by the Swiss FM breeding federation. Questionnaires were sent to 3500 of its members and the results include data from 968 breeding enterprises, housing a total of 3965 FM. The quality of the husbandry of FM varies according to factors such as the altitude and the geographical situation of the farms and studs. Socio-economic parameters, such as the role of FM in the business, their use (breeding, driving, riding) and the age and level of professional education of the owners may also have an effect on standards of husbandry. The results show that the owners for whom FM represent a source of income more frequently keep their horses in standing stalls, but give them more time to exercise at liberty than the horses belonging to amateur breeders. Younger and better educated breeders are more likely to house their animals in groups.

Orofacial/cerebral injuries and the use of mouthguards by professional athletes in Switzerland

The objective of the present study was to measure the occurrence of orofacial and cerebral injuries in different sports and to survey the awareness of athletes and officials concerning the use of mouthguards during sport activities. Two hundred and sixty-seven professional athletes and 63 officials participating in soccer, handball, basketball and ice hockey were interviewed. The frequency of orofacial and cerebral trauma during sport practice was recorded and the reason for using and not using mouthguards was assessed. A great difference in orofacial and cerebral injuries was found when comparing the different kinds of sports and comparing athletes with or without mouthguards. 45% of the players had suffered injuries when not wearing mouthguards. Most injuries were found in ice hockey, (59%), whereas only 24% of the soccer players suffered injuries when not wearing mouthguards. Sixty-eight percentage of the players wearing mouthguards had never suffered any orofacial and cerebral injuries. Two hundred and twenty-four athletes (84%) did not use a mouthguard despite general acceptance by 150 athletes (56%). Although the awareness of mouthguards among officials was very high (59%), only 25% of them would support the funding of mouthguards and 5% would enforce regulations. Athletes as well as coaches should be informed about the high risk of oral injuries when performing contact sports. Doctors and dentists need to recommend a more intensive education of students in sports medicine and sports dentistry, and to increase their willingness to become a team dentist.

Effect of lifetime endurance training on left atrial mechanical function and on the risk of atrial fibrillation

Background Left atrium (LA) dilation and P-wave duration are linked to the amount of endurance training and are risk factors for atrial fibrillation (AF). The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of LA anatomical and electrical remodeling on its conduit and pump function measured by two-dimensional speckle tracking echocardiography (STE). Method Amateur male runners > 30 years were recruited. Study participants (n = 95) were stratified in 3 groups according to lifetime training hours: low (< 1500 h, n = 33), intermediate (1500 to 4500 h, n = 32) and high training group (> 4500 h, n = 30). Results No differences were found, between the groups, in terms of age, blood pressure, and diastolic function. LA maximal volume (30 ± 5, 33 ± 5 vs. 37 ± 6 ml/m2, p < 0.001), and conduit volume index (9 ± 3, 11 ± 3 vs. 12 ± 3 ml/m2, p < 0.001) increased significantly from the low to the high training group, unlike the STE parameters: pump strain − 15.0 ± 2.8, − 14.7 ± 2.7 vs. − 14.9 ± 2.6%, p = 0.927; conduit strain 23.3 ± 3.9, 22.1 ± 5.3 vs. 23.7 ± 5.7%, p = 0.455. Independent predictors of LA strain conduit function were age, maximal early diastolic velocity of the mitral annulus, heart rate and peak early diastolic filling velocity. The signal-averaged P-wave (135 ± 11, 139 ± 10 vs. 148 ± 14 ms, p < 0.001) increased from the low to the high training group. Four episodes of non-sustained AF were recorded in one runner of the high training group. Conclusion The LA anatomical and electrical remodeling does not have a negative impact on atrial mechanical function. Hence, a possible link between these risk factors for AF and its actual, rare occurrence in this athlete population, could not be uncovered in the present study.

Misunderstanding Creativity : User Created Content in Virtual Worlds and its Constraints by Code and Law

Virtual worlds have moved from being a geek topic to one of mainstream academic interest. This transition is contingent not only on the augmented economic, societal and cultural value of these virtual realities and their effect upon real life but also on their convenience as fields for experimentation, for testing models and paradigms. User creation is however not something that has been transplanted from the real to the virtual world but a phenomenon and a dynamic process that happens from within and is defined through complex relationships between commercial and non-commercial, commodified and not commodified, individual and of the community, amateur and professional, art and not art. Accounting for this complex environment, the present paper explores user created content in virtual worlds, its dimensions and value and above all, its constraints by code and law. It puts forward suggestions for better understanding and harnessing this creativity.

Professional musicians listen differently to music

INTRODUCTION: Experience-based adaptation of emotional responses is an important faculty for cognitive and emotional functioning. Professional musicians represent an ideal model in which to elicit experience-driven changes in the emotional processing domain. The changes of the central representation of emotional arousal due to musical expertise are still largely unknown. The aim of the present study was to investigate the electroencephalogram (EEG) correlates of experience-driven changes in the domain of emotional arousal. Therefore, the differences in perceived (subjective arousal via ratings) and physiologically measured (EEG) arousal between amateur and professional musicians were examined. PROCEDURE: A total of 15 professional and 19 amateur musicians listened to the first movement of Ludwig van Beethoven's 5th symphony (duration=∼7.4min), during which a continuous 76-channel EEG was recorded. In a second session, the participants evaluated their emotional arousal during listening. In a tonic analysis, we examined the average EEG data over the time course of the music piece. For a phasic analysis, a fast Fourier transform was performed and covariance maps of spectral power were computed in association with the subjective arousal ratings. RESULTS: The subjective arousal ratings of the professional musicians were more consistent than those of the amateur musicians. In the tonic EEG analysis, a mid-frontal theta activity was observed in the professionals. In the phasic EEG, the professionals exhibited an increase of posterior alpha, central delta, and beta rhythm during high arousal. DISCUSSION: Professionals exhibited different and/or more intense patterns of emotional activation when they listened to the music. The results of the present study underscore the impact of music experience on emotional reactions.

What is self-control depleting in sports? Effects of vicarious experiences on performance

In the present study, we investigated the influence of sport specific vicarious depletion of self-control strength on performance in a Stroop task. In a betweensubject design N = 40 participants were randomly assigned to either a depletion condition in which they read a story about a soccer player who had to strongly regulate himself, or a non-depletion condition in which they read a story about a soccer player who did not have to regulate himself. Participants in both conditions were instructed to relive the soccer players' thoughts and feelings and we hypothesized that in the depletion condition participants would perform worse in a subsequent self-control task. The results were as expected as depleted participants showed longer latencies on the Stroop task. This study delivers a first indication that athletes are confronted with self-control demanding situations during sporting competitions which can lead to a depletion of self-control strength and impaired performance.

Subjektive Talentkriterien von Fussballtrainern in der Talentselektion

Einleitung Im Fußball entscheidet der Trainer, welche Spieler in eine Leistungsmannschaft selektioniert werden. Die Frage, nach welchen Kriterien Trainer die Spieler beurteilen und selektionieren, wurde bislang allerdings unzureichend untersucht (Williams & Reilly, 2000). In der vorliegenden qualitativen Studie wird der Frage nachgegangen, welche Talentkriterien aus Trainersicht für den späteren Erfolg im Spitzenfußball ausschlaggebend sind. Methode Interviewpartner waren sechs männliche Fußballtrainer (MAlter = 39.5; SD = 7.18), die hauptberuflich für die Nachwuchsabteilung (Altersklasse 13 – 17 Jahre) eines Schweizer Fußballvereins der höchsten nationalen Spielklasse (Super League) arbeiten und zum Zeitpunkt des Interviews mindestens die UEFA-A-Lizenz besaßen. Die Bestimmung der subjektiven Talentkriterien erfolgte mithilfe eines Interviewleitfadens, der sich an der Konstruktbestimmung der Repertory Grid Technik (vgl. Fromm, 2004) orientierte. Ausge-wertet wurden die Interviews mit einer qualitativen Inhaltsanalyse (Kvale, 1996). Ergebnisse und Diskussion Die Untersuchung zeigt, dass sich die subjektiven Talentkriterien von Trainern sprachlich differenziert erheben lassen. Die befragten Trainer formulierten jeweils sechs bis acht Talentkriterien, die Aspekte aus den Bereichen Persönlichkeit, kognitiv-perzeptuelle Fertigkeiten, konditionelle Fähigkeiten, Technik, physische Konstitution und Umfeld beinhalten. Dass einige Kriterien Aspekte mehrere dieser Bereiche beinhalten und inhaltlich nicht den Kriterien der anderen Trainer entsprechen, kann als Hinweis auf die Subjektivität und Individualität dieser Talentkriterien gedeutet werden. Beinahe die Hälfte der genannten Kriterien beinhalten Persönlichkeitsaspekte. Facetten der Leistungsmotivation wurden dabei am häufigsten genannt, gefolgt von Lernfähigkeit und Lernbereitschaft sowie anderen Aspekten wie z.B. zur Selbsteinschätzung und Zielorientierung. Die Er-gebnisse zeigen, dass die untersuchten Trainer eine differenzierte Wahrnehmung von entwicklungsförderlichen Persönlichkeitsmerkmalen haben. Die Bedeutung der Persönlichkeit aus Trainersicht für das Erreichen eines Spitzenniveaus ist vergleichbar mit den Ergebnissen vorheriger Untersuchungen (z.B. Christensen, 2009). Literatur Christensen, M. K. (2009). "An Eye for Talent": Talent Identification and the "Practical Sense" of Top-Level Soccer Coaches. Sociology of Sport Journal, 26, 365–382. Fromm, M. (2004). Introduction to the Repertory Grid Interview. Münster: Waxmann. Kvale, S. (1996). InterViews: An introduction to qualitative researching interviewing. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Williams, A. M. & Reilly, T. (2000). Talent identification and development in soccer. Journal of Sports Sciences, 18, 657-667.

Anger and fear: Separable effects of emotion and motivational direction on somatovisceral responses.

We studied whether emotion (anger vs. fear) and motivational direction (approach vs. withdrawal) have specific, separable, and independent somatovisceral response patterns. Imagination scripts about soccer game episodes with crossed Emotion x Motivational Direction content resulting in four experimental groups were presented to a total of N = 118 active soccer players. Self-reports reflected the emotion but not the motivational direction induction. Univariate and multivariate analyses of 24 somatovisceral variables and 2 a priori defined summary variables showed that anger and fear had specific response profiles with effect sizes correlating r = 0.53 with the respective effect sizes from a previous study. Approach and withdrawal profiles varied only in intensity. Emotion and motivational direction did not interact and had independent somatovisceral effects. Results suggest that anger and fear have separate underlying neurobiological organizations each capable of bi-directional motivational tuning of efferent pathways. Results support the Component Model of Somatovisceral Response Organization.

Effects of Anxiety on Anticipation and Visual Search in Dynamic, Time-Constrained Situations

We tested the predictions of Attentional Control Theory (ACT) by examining how anxiety affects visual search strategies, performance efficiency, and performance effectiveness using a dynamic, temporal-constrained anticipation task. Higher and lower skilled players viewed soccer situations under 2 task constraints (near vs. far situation) and were tested under high (HA) and low (LA) anxiety conditions. Response accuracy (effectiveness) and response time, perceived mental effort, and eye-movements (all efficiency) were recorded. A significant increase in anxiety was evidenced by higher state anxiety ratings on the MRF-L scale. Increased anxiety led to decreased performance efficiency because response times and mental effort increased for both skill groups whereas response accuracy did not differ. Anxiety influenced search strategies, with higher skilled players showing a decrease in number of fixation locations for far situations under HA compared with LA condition when compared with lower skilled players. Findings provide support for ACT with anxiety impairing processing efficiency and, potentially, top-down attentional control across different task constraints.

Impairments of peripheral motion change detection during smooth pursuit eye movements

Introduction: In team sports the ability to use peripheral vision is essential to track a number of players and the ball. By using eye-tracking devices it was found that players either use fixations and saccades to process information on the pitch or use smooth pursuit eye movements (SPEM) to keep track of single objects (Schütz, Braun, & Gegenfurtner, 2011). However, it is assumed that peripheral vision can be used best when the gaze is stable while it is unknown whether motion changes can be equally well detected when SPEM are used especially because contrast sensitivity is reduced during SPEM (Schütz, Delipetkose, Braun, Kerzel, & Gegenfurtner, 2007). Therefore, peripheral motion change detection will be examined by contrasting a fixation condition with a SPEM condition. Methods: 13 participants (7 male, 6 female) were presented with a visual display consisting of 15 white and 1 red square. Participants were instructed to follow the red square with their eyes and press a button as soon as a white square begins to move. White square movements occurred either when the red square was still (fixation condition) or moving in a circular manner with 6 °/s (pursuit condition). The to-be-detected white square movements varied in eccentricity (4 °, 8 °, 16 °) and speed (1 °/s, 2 °/s, 4 °/s) while movement time of white squares was constant at 500 ms. 180 events should be detected in total. A Vicon-integrated eye-tracking system and a button press (1000 Hz) was used to control for eye-movements and measure detection rates and response times. Response times (ms) and missed detections (%) were measured as dependent variables and analysed with a 2 (manipulation) x 3 (eccentricity) x 3 (speed) ANOVA with repeated measures on all factors. Results: Significant response time effects were found for manipulation, F(1,12) = 224.31, p < .01, ηp2 = .95, eccentricity, F(2,24) = 56.43; p < .01, ηp2 = .83, and the interaction between the two factors, F(2,24) = 64.43; p < .01, ηp2 = .84. Response times increased as a function of eccentricity for SPEM only and were overall higher than in the fixation condition. Results further showed missed events effects for manipulation, F(1,12) = 37.14; p < .01, ηp2 = .76, eccentricity, F(2,24) = 44.90; p < .01, ηp2 = .79, the interaction between the two factors, F(2,24) = 39.52; p < .01, ηp2 = .77 and the three-way interaction manipulation x eccentricity x speed, F(2,24) = 3.01; p = .03, ηp2 = .20. While less than 2% of events were missed on average in the fixation condition as well as at 4° and 8° eccentricity in the SPEM condition, missed events increased for SPEM at 16 ° eccentricity with significantly more missed events in the 4 °/s speed condition (1 °/s: M = 34.69, SD = 20.52; 2 °/s: M = 33.34, SD = 19.40; 4 °/s: M = 39.67, SD = 19.40). Discussion: It could be shown that using SPEM impairs the ability to detect peripheral motion changes at the far periphery and that fixations not only help to detect these motion changes but also to respond faster. Due to high temporal constraints especially in team sports like soccer or basketball, fast reaction are necessary for successful anticipation and decision making. Thus, it is advised to anchor gaze at a specific location if peripheral changes (e.g. movements of other players) that require a motor response have to be detected. In contrast, SPEM should only be used if a single object, like the ball in cricket or baseball, is necessary for a successful motor response. References: Schütz, A. C., Braun, D. I., & Gegenfurtner, K. R. (2011). Eye movements and perception: A selective review. Journal of Vision, 11, 1-30. Schütz, A. C., Delipetkose, E., Braun, D. I., Kerzel, D., & Gegenfurtner, K. R. (2007). Temporal contrast sensitivity during smooth pursuit eye movements. Journal of Vision, 7, 1-15.

Development and voluntarism in football clubs

Volunteers are still the most important resource for amateur football clubs. However, stable voluntary engagement can no longer be granted. This difficulty is confirmed by existing research across various European countries. From a club management point of view, a detailed understanding of how to attract volunteers and retain them is becoming a high priority. The purpose of this study is (1) to analyse the influence of individual characteristics and corresponding organisational conditions on volunteering and (2) to examine the decision-making processes in relation to implement effective strategies for recruiting volunteers. To answer these questions, the current state of research is summarised and then a multi-level-framework is developed which is based on the structural-individualistic social theory. The individual and context factors for volunteering are estimated in different multi-level models based on a sample of n=1,434 sport club members from 36 sport clubs in Switzerland. Results indicate that volunteering is not just an outcome of individual characteristics such as lower workloads, higher income, children belonging to the sport club, longer club membership, or a strong commitment to the club. It is also influenced by club-specific structural conditions. Concerning decision-making processes an in-depth analysis of recruitment practices for volunteers was conducted in selected clubs (case study design). based on the garbage can model. The results show that systematically designed decision-making processes with a clear regulation of responsibilities seem to solve personnel problems more purposefully and more quickly. Based on the findings some recommendations for volunteer management in football clubs are worked out.