A Gendered Triangle? Intergenerational Social Mobility in 20th Century Switzerland

In the light of the dramatically changed social structure of women, surprisingly little gender differences have been found in temporal changes of effects of social origin on occupational class. Using a recently developed methodological approach and Swiss data on birth cohorts from 1925 to 1978, this paper takes a closer look by considering not only the total effect of social origin but also the individual elements of the indirect effect mediated by individual’s education. It finds that this indirect path have changed indeed differently for women and men, but the findings on the direct effect remain mixed, partially because this path seems to be especially sensitive to the conceptualization of social class.

Adolescents’ willingness for intergenerational support: Relations to maternal expectations and mothers’ life satisfaction in 14 cultures

How is adolescents’ willingness for intergenerational support affected by parents’ expectations and parenting behavior? Does youths’ willingness for intergenerational support in turn affect parents’ well-being? The current study addresses these questions from a cross-cultural perspective, using data from connected samples of mother-adolescent dyads (N = 4162) from 14 diverse cultural contexts as part of the “Value of Children and Intergenerational Relations Study” (Trommsdorff & Nauck, 2005). The results are based on mixed model analyses (with culture as a random factor). Associations were investigated between family norms (expectations of support by adult children), parenting goals (obedience, independence) and parenting behavior (acceptance, control) reported by mothers and adolescents’ reports on willingness to support (help in household tasks, willingness to tolerate burdens in order to help their parents in case of accident, emotional support given to mothers and fathers). Across cultures, maternal expectations of adult children were positively related to adolescents’ reported household help and their current emotional support to mothers and fathers. Obedience, and control were positively related to the amount of adolescent help in the household, while independence and acceptance were related to a higher willingness to tolerate burdens as well as to higher emotional support given to the mother. Regarding associations between adolescents’ actual and intended intergenerational support with mothers’ life satisfaction, adolescents’ willingness to tolerate burdens was related to a higher maternal life satisfaction while adolescents’ reported household help was not. Adolescents’ current emotional support to fathers (but not to mothers) was also related to higher maternal life satisfaction. While most of the effects were stable across cultures (no significant random slope variance across cultural groups), some effects did significantly vary across cultures. Traditional-vs.-secular values as culture-level characteristics will be discussed as explanation for these culture-specific relations among mothers’ expectations, adolescents’ intergenerational support, and mothers’ life satisfaction.

Intergenerational Transfer of Family Firm Control: Discount Expectations of Potential Successors

Building on institutional theory and family sociology literature we explore the logics that underlie the formation of transaction price expectations related to the intergenerational transfer of corporate ownership in private family firms. By probing a sample of 3'487 students with family business background from 20 countries we show that next generation family members expect to receive a 56.58% discount in comparison to some nonfamily buyer (i.e. the family discount) when taking over the parent's firm. We also show that the logic underlying the formation of family discount expectations is characterized by parental altruism, filial reciprocity, filial decency and parental inducement. These norms embrace both the family and market logics and accommodate the duties and demands of children and parents in determining a fair transfer price. These findings are important for institutional theory as well as for family business and entrepreneurial exit literatures.

Negotiating conservation: the construction of meaningful spaces in a world heritage debate

According to one’s personal biography, social background and the resultant degree of affectedness, a person has certain ideas about the meaning of, in our example, a World Heritage Site (WHS), what he or she can expect from it and what his or her relation to it can and should be. The handling of potentially different meaningful spaces is decisive, when it comes to the negotiation of pathways towards the sustainable development of a WHS region. Due to the fact that – in a pluralistic world – multiple realities exist, they have to be taken seriously and adequately addressed. In this article we identified the ways the Jungfrau-Aletsch- WHS was constructed by exploring the visual and verbal representations of the WHS during the decision-making process (1998-2001). The results demonstrate that in the visual representations (images), the WHS was to a large extent presented as an unspoiled natural environment similar to a touristy promotion brochure. Such a ‘picture-book’-like portrait has no direct link to the population’s daily needs, their questions and anxieties about the consequences of a WHS label. By contrast, the verbal representations (articles, letters-to-the-editor, comments) were dominated by issues concerning the economic development of the region, fears of disappropriation, and different views on nature. Whereas visual and verbal representations to a large extent differ significantly, their combination might have contributed to the final decision of the majority of people concerned to support the application for inscription of the Jungfrau-Aletsch-Bietschhorn region into the World Heritage list. The prominence of economic arguments and narratives about intergenerational responsibility in the verbal representations and their combination with the aesthetic appeal of the natural environment in the visual representations might have built a common meaningful space for one part of the population.

Indigenous knowledge related to climate variability and change: insights from droughts in semi-arid areas of former Makueni District, Kenya

This article describes the indigenous knowledge (IK) that agro-pastoralists in larger Makueni District, Kenya hold and how they use it to monitor, mitigate and adapt to drought. It examines ways of integrating IK into formal monitoring, how to enhance its value and acceptability. Data was collected through target interviews, group discussions and questionnaires covering 127 households in eight villages. Daily rainfall data from 1961–2003 were analysed. Results show that agro-pastoralists hold IK on indicators of rainfall variability; they believe in IK efficacy and they rely on them. Because agro-pastoralists consult additional sources, the authors interpret that IK forms a basic knowledge frame within which agro-pastoralists position and interpret meteorological forecasts. Only a few agro-pastoralists adapt their practices in anticipation of IK-based forecasts partly due to the conditioning of the actors to the high rainfall variability characteristic of the area and partly due to lack of resources. Non-drought factors such as poverty, inadequate resources and lack of preparedness expose agro-pastoralists to drought impacts and limit their adaptive capacity. These factors need to be understood and effectively addressed to increase agro-pastoralists’ decision options and the influence of IK-based forecasts on their decision-making patterns. The limited intergenerational transfer of IK currently threatens its existence in the longer term. One way to ensure its continued existence and use is to integrate IK into the education curriculum and to link IK with formal climate change research through the participation of the local people. However, further studies are necessary to address the reliability and validity of the identified IK indicators of climate variability and change.

Social networking sites and older users - a systematic review

BACKGROUND Social networking sites can be beneficial for senior citizens to promote social participation and to enhance intergenerational communication. Particularly for older adults with impaired mobility, social networking sites can help them to connect with family members and other active social networking users. The aim of this systematic review is to give an overview of existing scientific literature on social networking in older users. METHODS Computerized databases were searched and 105 articles were identified and screened using exclusion criteria. After exclusion of 87 articles, 18 articles were included, reviewed, classified, and the key findings were extracted. Common findings are identified and critically discussed and possible future research directions are outlined. RESULTS The main benefit of using social networking sites for older adults is to enter in an intergenerational communication with younger family members (children and grandchildren) that is appreciated by both sides. Identified barriers are privacy concerns, technical difficulties and the fact that current Web design does not take the needs of older users into account. CONCLUSIONS Under the conditions that these problems are carefully addressed, social networking sites have the potential to support today's and tomorrow's communication between older and younger family members.

Intergenerationale Mobilität im Lebensverlauf oder: Ist der öffentliche Dienst ein Mobilitätskanal zwischen Generationen?

Aus der Lebensverlaufsperspektive wird die intergenerationale Mobilität von Männern und Frauen in den Kohorten 1929-31, 1939-41 und 1949-51 untersucht. In welchem Umfang hat die Expansion des öffentlichen Dienstes Mobilitätschancen eröffnet? Inwieweit hat der öffentliche Dienst als Sonderstruktur im Gegensatz zur Privatwirtschaft seine Funktion als "Mobilitätskanal" ausgeweitet? Modifizieren für den öffentlichen Dienst charakteristische institutionelle Regelungen der Rekrutierung und Allokation von Arbeitskräften diese Funktion? Für empirische Analysen wurden Längsschnittdaten des Lebensverlaufsprojekts am Berliner Max-Planck-Institut für Bildungsforschung herangezogen. Zunehmende herkunftsbedingte und bildungsmäßige Ungleichheit bestimmen einen Großteil der Chancen intergenerationaler Mobilität. Die Ausdehnung der Staatsbeschäftigung hat dazu geführt, daß in der Kohortenabfolge vor allem die Berufsanfänger aufstiegen, die in der Lage waren, in den öffentlichen Dienst einzutreten. Das Nachholen beim Berufseinstieg verpaßter Aufstiege ist kaum möglich, und dies gelingt auch nicht durch die Beschäftigung im öffentlichen Dienst. Für die Wahrscheinlichkeit intergenerationaler Aufstiege im Berufsverlauf gibt es keine sektorspezifischen Unterschiede. Staatsbeschäftigte unterliegen aufgrund der Besitzstandswahrung einem deutlich geringeren Abstiegsrisiko als privatwirtschaftlich Beschäftigte. Der Staatssektor hat seine Funktion als Aufstiegskanal für Berufsanfänger ausgeweitet und garantiert seinen langfristig Beschäftigten die erreichte Statuslage. Damit ist der öffentliche Dienst ein weiteres Strukturprinzip sozialer Ungleichheit.

Family change theory: A preliminary evaluation on the basis of recent cross-cultural studies

Family change theory (Kagitcibasi, 1996, 2007) is an approach which can be used to explain how modernisation and globalisation processes affect the family. The most important assumption of the theory is that when traditional interdependent cultures modernise, they need not necessarily develop in the direction of the independent family model typical of Western individualistic societies. Instead, they may develop towards a family model of emotional interdependence that combines continuing emotional interdependencies in the family with declining material interdependencies and with rising personal autonomy. In this chapter a preliminary evaluation of the empirical status of family change theory is given based on a review of recent cross-cultural studies. It will be shown to what extent the few studies that have been systematically conducted in this respect have found results either supporting or not supporting aspects ofthe theory, and where the strengths and problems of this research lie.

Adolescents' family models: A cross-cultural study

Die vorliegende kulturvergleichende Arbeit befasst sich mit den Familienmodellen Jugendlicher in zehn Kulturen auf Basis eines typologischen Ansatzes und eines Mehrebenenansatzes. Sie leistet damit einen empirischen Beitrag zur Theorie der Familienmodelle im kulturellen Wandel nach Kagitcibasi (2007). Diese Theorie postuliert die Existenz dreier idealtypischer Familienmodelle: ein Familienmodell der Independenz, das in industrialisierten westlichen Gesellschaften vorherrscht, ein Familienmodell der (vollständigen) Interdependenz, das in nicht-industrialisierten agrarischen Kulturen zu finden ist, und als Synthese aus den beiden genannten ein Familienmodell der emotionalen Interdependenz. Letzteres entwickelt sich der Theorie zufolge, wenn nicht-industrialisierte kollektivistische Kulturen Modernisierungsprozessen ausgesetzt sind. Traditionelle Kulturen mit einem Familienmodell der (vollständigen) Interdependenz sollen sich also im Zuge gesellschaftlicher Modernisierungsprozesse nicht notwendigerweise hin zum Familienmodell der Independenz entwickeln, sondern zu einem emotional-interdependenten Modell, das erlaubt, Autonomie mit enger interpersoneller Verbundenheit zu vereinen. Diese Annahme steht im Widerspruch zu klassischen modernisierungstheoretischen Annahmen und wurde in bisherigen Studien nur unzureichend geprüft. In einem typologischen Mehrebenen-Ansatz sollen Profile allgemeiner und familienbezogener Werthaltungen Jugendlicher identifiziert werden, die mit den drei idealtypischen Familienmodellen theoretisch verbunden werden können. In einem zweiten Schritt sollen diese Wertemuster durch verhaltensnähere Familienmodellindikatoren validiert werden. Die Daten für diese Arbeit stammen aus der von der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft geförderten kulturvergleichenden und interdisziplinären Value of Children and Intergenerational Relations Studie (Trommsdorff, 2001) und umfassen eine Stichprobe von 2566 Jugendlichen aus der Volksrepublik China, Deutschland, Frankreich, Indien, Indonesien, Israel, Japan, Südafrika, der Schweiz und der Türkei. Zur Identifikation der angenommen Familienmodell-Werteprofile wurden Cluster-Analysen auf der Kultur- und auf der Individualebene durchgeführt. Auf beiden Analyseebenen zeigten sich drei Werteprofile, die dem erwarteten Muster der drei idealtypischen Familienmodelle entsprachen. Das Familienmodell der emotionalen Interdependenz zeigte dabei bezüglich der Werthaltungen, die emotionale Interdependenzen in der Familie widerspiegeln ähnlich hohe Werte wie das Familienmodell der (vollständigen) Interdependenz, dagegen zeigte es ähnliche Werte wie das Familienmodell der Independenz in Bezug auf Autonomie und materielle Interdependenz widerspiegelnde Werte. In Kulturen, die auf der Kulturebene ein bestimmtes Familienmodell-Werteprofil aufwiesen befanden sich zudem überwiegend Jugendliche, die das jeweils korrespondierende Werteprofil auf der individuellen Analyseebene aufzeigten. Zur Validierung der erhaltenen Familienmodell-Werteprofile wurden diese zu verhaltensnäheren Merkmalen von Familienmodellen in Beziehung gesetzt. Die Vorhersage erfolgte auch hier jeweils getrennt für die Kultur- und Individualebene. Mit Hilfe multinomialer logistischer Modelle wurde zunächst der Effekt der Familienmodell-Werteprofile auf die Bereitschaft der Jugendlichen überprüft, ihren Eltern bei der Hausarbeit zu helfen. Die Ergebnisse zeigten einen starken Effekt der Familienmodell-Werteprofile auf beiden Analyseebenen: fast alle Jugendlichen mit einem Familienmodell der (vollständigen) Interdependenz würden ihren Eltern helfen statt sich wie geplant mit ihren Freunden zu treffen, wohingegen nur zwei Drittel bzw. nur ein Drittel der Jugendlichen mit einem Familienmodell der emotionalen Interdependenz bzw. der Independenz der Bitte der Eltern folgen würde. In Bezug auf die familienbezogenen Zukunftsorientierungen Jugendlicher zeigte sich für die Pläne für eine zukünftige Heirat/Beziehung, dass Jugendliche mit einem Familienmodell der (vollständigen) Interdependenz den stärksten Heiratswunsch hatten. Jugendliche mit einem Familienmodell der emotionalen Interdependenz waren bezüglich dieser Frage am unsichersten, und Jugendliche mit einem Familienmodell der Independenz äußerten die stärkste Ablehnung in dieser Frage. In Bezug auf Pläne, später eigene Kinder zu haben zeigten sich ähnliche Effekte, die aber insgesamt schwächer ausfielen. Insgesamt zeigte sich trotz der Unterschiede eine hohe familienbezogene Zukunftsorientierung in allen Familienmodell-Werteprofilen sowie in allen Kulturen. Bezüglich der Sohn- bzw. Tochterpräferenz zeigten sich keine Effekte der Familienmodell- und Kulturzugehörigkeit. Die Ergebnisse der Studie stärken die umstrittene Validität insbesondere des Familienmodells der emotionalen Interdependenz. Ob es sich hierbei im Sinne der Theorie von Kagitcibasi um ein synthetisches Konvergenzmodell oder eher um ein Übergangsmodell handelt, muss zukünftige Forschung zeigen.

Adult parent-child relationships: Relationship quality, support, and reciprocity

In accordance with Bengtson's model of intergenerational solidarity (e.g. Bengtson & Roberts, 1991), the interrelations between adult daughters' family values, their perception of the relationship quality with their parents, the support they reported to give to and to receive from their parents, and their perception of reciprocity in intergenerational support exchange were investigated for N = 265 middle-aged women in Germany. It was also asked whether the support given to parents and perceived reciprocity are related to daughters' felt burden as a result of their support. Cross-sectional, self-report data were examined with multiple and multinomial logistic regression analyses. The analyses revealed positive relations between family values, relationship quality, and support to parents. Perceived reciprocity was associated with the exchange of intergenerational support and imbalance in support had negative effects on the relationship quality. Felt burden was predicted by the extent of support and the perceived reciprocity. However, specific correlational patterns depending on the kind of support as well as differences in the importance of mother and father occurred. The findings are discussed against the background of the meaning of family obligations and reciprocity in a Western culture.

The changing values of children and preferences regarding family size in south Africa

This study extends the ongoing studies on values of children and intergenerational relations into an African context with the following key questions: To what extent can the structure of values of children (VOC) identified in previous studies be found in South Africa and what are women's preferences regarding the size of small, large, and ideal families? The sample consisted of three cohorts of Black South African women from the Limpopo Province. Factor analyses showed that the dimensions of VOC found in South Africa are a conglomeration of different values. Identified dimensions were Social/Emotional and Traditional/Utilitarian with respect to reasons for wanting children. Regarding reasons for not wanting children, Child as Source of Constraints and Constraints to Have a Child were identified. Intergenerational comparisons showed variations in the importance of value of children dimensions and in preferences regarding family size. Values of children of younger mothers were related to the number of children these women had and to their preferences regarding family size. The findings are discussed within the changing socio-political context of South Africa.

Does ‘better’ discounting lead to ‘worse’ outcomes in long-run decisions? The dilemma of hyperbolic discounting

The shortcomings of conventional discounting, especially in the context of long-run environmental problems, have been extensively discussed in the literature. Recently, hyperbolic discounting, i. e. discounting at declining instead of constant discount rates, has attracted a lot of interest among both scientists and politicians. Although there are compelling arguments for employing hyperbolic discounting, there are also pitfalls, which have to be pointed out. In this paper I show that the problem of time-inconsistency, an inherent characteristics of hyperbolic discounting, leads to a potential clash between economic efficiency and intergenerational equity. As an example, I refer to the weak progress in the controlling of greenhouse gas emissions under the Kyoto protocol. As the problem of time-inconsistency cannot be solved on economic grounds alone, there is a need for an intergenerational moral commitment.