What does professionalization mean? Developing a conceptual framework of professionalization in sports federations

Professionalization seems to be an appropriate strategy for sports organizations to meet organizational pressure due to challenges of a more complex and dynamic changing environment (e.g. Shilbury & Ferkins, 2011). However, despite the increasing number of studies attempting to disclose professionalization in sports organizations, it still remains unclear, what the term professionalization actually mean, and which aspects a suitable concept of professionalization for studying the phenomena should consist in (Dowling et al., 2014). To bridge this gap, we firstly display scholars’ perspective of professionalization in sports organizations in order to explore the common ground as well as divergences in previous approaches. We will then consider practical views of Swiss experts to gain valuable insight, as pointed out by Slack (2014), into current thinking and acting towards professionalization in sports federations in Switzerland. In semi-structured interviews, we asked six experts, who accompany the professionalization processes of Swiss national sports federations, about their subjective understanding of professionalization, and its characteristics. The interviews were analyzed applying hermeneutic approach to systematically reconstruct the observed characteristics of professionalization resulting in three main topics: (1) changed management philosophy, (2) specialization and functional differentiation, and (3) management tools. Based on the literature review as well as insights from the Swiss experts, we will provide a synthesis of crucial aspects for developing a conceptual framework of professionalization that can be useful for further studies. References Dowling, M., Edwards, J., & Washington, M. (2014). Understanding the concept of professionalisation in sport management research. Sport Management Review, 17, 520-529. Shilbury, D., & Ferkins, L. (2011). Professionalisation, sport governance and strategic capability. Managing Leisure, 16, 108-127. Slack, T. (2014). The social and commercial impact of sport, the role of sport management. European Sport Management Quarterly, 14, 454–463.

Report of the WPA section of pharmacopsychiatry on the relationship of antiepileptic drugs with suicidality in epilepsy

INTRODUCTION This report from the World Psychiatric Association Section on Pharmacopsychiatry examines the possible relationship of antiepileptic drugs with suicide-related clinical features and behaviors in patients with epilepsy. MATERIALS AND METHODS A systematic review of the MEDLINE search returned 1039 papers, of which only 8 were considered relevant. A critical analysis of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) report on the increase risk for patients under antiepileptics to manifest suicidality is also included in this report. RESULTS The analysis of these studies revealed that the data are not supportive of the presence of a "class effect" on suicide-related behavior; on the contrary, there are some data suggesting such an effect concerning treatment with topiramate, lamotrigine, and levetiracetam for which further research is needed. DISCUSSION For the majority of people with epilepsy, anticonvulsant treatment is necessary and its failure for any reason is expected to have deleterious consequences. Therefore, clinicians should inform patients and their families of this increased risk of suicidal ideation and behavior, but should not overemphasize the issue. Specific subgroups of patients with epilepsy might be at a higher risk, and deserve closer monitoring and follow-up. Future research with antiepileptics should specifically focus on depression and suicidal thoughts.

Zur Bedeutung sportbezogener Verhaltensmuster in der Familie für die Sportpartizipation Jugendlicher

Einleitung: In der Sportpartizipation Jugendlicher und junger Erwachsener bestehen trotz vielfältiger Bemühungen der Sport- und Bewegungsförderung nach wie vor soziale Ungleichheiten und die Ausstiegsraten sind darüber hinaus relativ hoch (Nagel, 2003). Ein möglicher Erklärungsansatz für diese sozialen Ungleichheiten dürften aus einer sozialisationstheoretischen Perspektive die transgenerationale Vermittlung von sportbezogenen Wertvorstellungen und Verhaltensmuster in der Familie sein (Baur, 1989; Burrmann, 2005). Im Familienalltag wird den Aspekten Bewegung und Sport eine unterschiedliche Bedeutung zugesprochen, weshalb der Frage nachgegangen wird, inwiefern das Sportverhalten von Jugendlichen über sportbezogene Wertvorstellungen und Verhaltensmuster in der Familie beeinflusst wird. Methode: Mittels eines Online-Fragebogens wurden insgesamt 1909 Heranwachsende im Alter von 15 bis 20 Jahren (n = 1909; M = 17.3, SD = 1.7) zu ihrem aktuellen Sportverhalten sowie zu den sportbezogenen Verhaltensmustern in ihrer Familie befragt. Nebst dieser quantitativen Untersuchung wurden teilstrukturierte Interviews mit 13 Jugendlichen und jungen Erwachsenen im Alter zwischen 15 und 25 Jahren mit denselben Themenschwerpunkten geführt. Resultate: Die Ergebnisse der multiplen linearen Regression zeigen, dass wichtige Prädiktoren der Sportpartizipation von Jugendlichen die Kommunikation über Sport (β = .19, p < .001), die gegenseitige Unterstützung (β = .16, p < .001), die regelmässige Sportaktivität (β = .11, p < .01) sowie der Stellenwert des Sports in der Familie (β = .09, p < .05) darstellen. Die gemeinsame Sportaktivität in der Familie sowie das sportbezogene Gesundheitsbewusstsein im Familienalltag sind für die Sportbeteiligung Jugendlicher nicht relevant. Die signifikanten familiären Sportverhaltensmuster klären 16.8% der Varianz auf. Mithilfe der strukturierenden qualitativen Inhaltsanalyse nach Mayring (2002) lassen sich aus den Interviews vertiefende Aussagen zu den einzelnen Prädiktoren machen. Diskussion: Die quantitativen sowie qualitativen Ergebnisse zeigen die Relevanz des Stellenwerts des Sports sowie gewisser habitueller Sportverhaltensmuster in der Familie für die Sportbeteiligung der Jugendlichen auf. Die Sportförderung der jüngeren Generation über das familiäre Sportverhalten und deren sportbezogenen Wertvorstellungen scheint eine fruchtbare Strategie zu sein, um beim Nachwuchs aktive Sportverhaltensmuster zu entwickeln und dadurch die Sportpartizipation bis hin zum Jugend- und Erwachsenenalter aufrecht zu erhalten. Um zielgerichtet auf Familien zugeschnittene Sportförderprogramme schaffen zu können, sind jedoch weitere Untersuchungen zur transgenerationalen Vermittlung von sportbezogenen Wertvorstellungen und Verhaltensmuster in Familien notwendig. Literatur: Baur, J. (1989). Körper- und Bewegungskarrieren. Schorndorf: Hofmann. Burrmann, U. (2005). Zur Vermittlung und intergenerationalen "Vererbung" von Sport(vereins)engagements in der Herkunftsfamilie. Sport und Gesellschaft, 2, 125-154. Mayring, P. (2002). Einführung in die qualitative Sozialforschung: Eine Anleitung zu qualitativem Denken. Weinheim: Beltz. Nagel, M. (2003). Soziale Ungleichheiten im Sport. Aachen: Meyer & Meyer. 31

Professionalisation of sport federations – A multi-level framework for analysing forms, causes and consequences

Research question: International and national sport federations as well as their member organisations are key actors within the sport system and have a wide range of relationships outside the sport system (e.g. with the state, sponsors, and the media). They are currently facing major challenges such as growing competition in top-level sports, democratisation of sports with ‘sports for all’ and sports as the answer to social problems. In this context, professionalising sport organisations seems to be an appropriate strategy to face these challenges and current problems. We define the professionalisation of sport organisations as an organisational process of transformation leading towards organisational rationalisation, efficiency and business-like management. This has led to a profound organisational change, particularly within sport federations, characterised by the strengthening of institutional management (managerialism) and the implementation of efficiency-based management instruments and paid staff. Research methods: The goal of this article is to review the current international literature and establish a global understanding of and theoretical framework for analysing why and how sport organisations professionalise and what consequences this may have. Results and findings: Our multi-level approach based on the social theory of action integrates the current concepts for analysing professionalisation in sport federations. We specify the framework for the following research perspectives: (1) forms, (2) causes and (3) consequences, and discuss the reciprocal relations between sport federations and their member organisations in this context. Implications: Finally, we work out a research agenda and derive general methodological consequences for the investigation of professionalisation processes in sport organisations.

Sportwissenschaftliches Studium und Beruf in der Schweiz

Im Zuge der Ausdifferenzierung und Kommerzialisierung des Sports und der damit verbundenen Professionalisierung und Verberuflichung vieler Bereiche haben insbesondere außerschulische sportbezogene Berufsfelder stark an Bedeutung gewonnen. Allerdings gibt es bislang nur wenige Studien, die sowohl die beruflichen Karriereverläufe von Absolventinnen und Absolventen sportwissenschaftlicher Studiengänge aus lebenszeitlicher Perspektive als auch Veränderungen im Berufsfeld Sport aus zeithistorischer Perspektive standortübergreifend analysieren. Dieses Buch zielt darauf ab, bestehende Forschungslücken in diesem Bereich für die Schweiz zu schließen. Die Ergebnisse der beiden Studien BASIS und BASIS Future, in denen Absolventenkohorten sportwissenschaftlicher Studiengänge aller sportwissenschaftlichen Institute der Schweiz befragt wurden, geben Aufschluss darüber, in welchen Berufsfeldern die Absolventen eine Anstellung finden, wie die Berufskarrieren von Absolventen sportwissenschaftlicher Studiengänge verlaufen, welche zeithistorischen Veränderungen sich im Berufsfeld Sport beobachten lassen und welche Determinanten einen wesentlichen Einfluss auf den Karriereverlauf haben. Die beiden Studien zeigen aber auch, dass die Attraktivität des Studienfaches Sportwissenschaft nicht automatisch bedeutet, dass in verschiedenen sportspezifischen Berufsfeldern tatsächlich eine große Anzahl stabiler und gut bezahlter Arbeitsplätze vorhanden ist.

Sport clubs in Europe. A cross-national comparative perspective

​This book presents an up-to-date portrait of the characteristics of sport clubs in various European countries and their role in society and the national sport system. Furthermore, it offers a cross-national comparative perspective of sport clubs in twenty European countries. Containing both empirical data and information on the political and historical backgrounds of sport clubs, the book is organized in three parts. First, the authors provide an overview of the theoretical approach of the book and a description of the framework used for the country chapters. Second, the country chapters, written by experts within the field, provide a systematic overview of the available information on sport clubs in each country. These chapters are structured to answer the following questions: (1) What is the position of sport clubs within the national sport structure? (2) Which role do they fulfil in policy and society? (3) What are their basic characteristics and what factors influence the development of sport clubs? The book is concluded with a systematic comparison of the participating countries with the purpose of forging a clear link between the functioning of policy systems, observed problems, and possible solutions, and with a future research agenda on sport clubs. In an era of increased collaboration between European states, sport provides a natural vehicle through which to compare changes in culture, economics, and policy across nations. Sport Clubs in Europe will appeal to scholars of nonprofit management, sports management and sports sociology as well as administrators and policy makers in the international sports community.

Development and voluntarism in football clubs

Volunteers are still the most important resource for amateur football clubs. However, stable voluntary engagement can no longer be granted. This difficulty is confirmed by existing research across various European countries. From a club management point of view, a detailed understanding of how to attract volunteers and retain them is becoming a high priority. The purpose of this study is (1) to analyse the influence of individual characteristics and corresponding organisational conditions on volunteering and (2) to examine the decision-making processes in relation to implement effective strategies for recruiting volunteers. To answer these questions, the current state of research is summarised and then a multi-level-framework is developed which is based on the structural-individualistic social theory. The individual and context factors for volunteering are estimated in different multi-level models based on a sample of n=1,434 sport club members from 36 sport clubs in Switzerland. Results indicate that volunteering is not just an outcome of individual characteristics such as lower workloads, higher income, children belonging to the sport club, longer club membership, or a strong commitment to the club. It is also influenced by club-specific structural conditions. Concerning decision-making processes an in-depth analysis of recruitment practices for volunteers was conducted in selected clubs (case study design). based on the garbage can model. The results show that systematically designed decision-making processes with a clear regulation of responsibilities seem to solve personnel problems more purposefully and more quickly. Based on the findings some recommendations for volunteer management in football clubs are worked out.

Professionalisation of sports federations – A multi-level framework for analysing forms, causes and consequences

Introduction: International and national sports federations as well as their member organisations (usually sports clubs) are key actors within the sports system and have a wide range of relationships outside the sports system (e.g. with the state, sponsors, and the media). They are currently facing major challenges such as growing competition in top-­‐level sports, democratisation of sports with “sports for all” and sports as the answer to social problems (integration, education, health, unemployment, etc.). In this context, professionalising sports organisations seems to be an appropriate strategy to face these challenges and solve current problems. This has led to a profound organisational change, particularly within sports federations, characterised by the strengthening of institutional management (managerialism) and the implementation of efficiency-­‐based management instruments and paid staff. In this context the questions arise how sports organisations professionalise and what consequences this may have. Theoretical framework: The goal of our presentation is to review the international literature and develop an appropriate concept of professionalisation in sport federations. Our multi-­‐level approach based on social theory of action integrates the current concepts and perspectives for analysing professionalisation in sports federations. We specify the framework for the following research perspectives: (1) forms, (2) causes and mechanisms, (3) consequences and (4) dynamics, and discuss the reciprocal relations between sports federations and their member organisations in this context. When analysing these different research perspectives, it is important to select or elaborate appropriate theoretical concepts to match the general multi-­‐level framework Discussion: The elaborated multi-­‐level framework for analysing professionalisation in sports federations is able to integrate most of the existing theoretical concepts and therefore, the broad range of endogenous as well as exogenous factors that might influence the professionalisation of sports organisations. Based on the theoretical framework, we can identify several consequences for the methodological design of studies intending to analyse the different perspectives of professionalisation in sports organisations: Data have to be collected on the different levels. Not only the forms of professionalisation and relevant structures of the organisations should be taken into account but also important characteristics of the environment (macro level) as well as members or member organisations, particularly key actors who might play a crucial role in gaining an understanding of professionalisation processes in sports organisations. In order to carry out a complex organisational research design, it seems necessary to focus on case studies – an approach that has become increasingly important in organisational research. Different strategies and methods of data collection have to be used within the case studies (e.g. interviews with experts within the organisations, questionnaire for selected people in the organisation, document analysis). Therefore, qualitative and quantitative research strategies have to be combined.