Synthesis of carbolines and analogues via rhodhium-catalyzed [2+2+2] cycloaddition with alkynyl-ynamides : application to the total synthesis of alkaloids

The main research theme of this dissertation is the synthesis of g- and b-carbolines using a metal-catalyzed [2+2+2] cycloaddition strategy of tethered alkynyl-ynamides (diynes) with nitriles. g- and b-carbolines form the core of a large group of natural product and represent important targets for organic chemists. Many of these carbolines showed pharmacological effects ranging from anti-tumor to anxiolytic and anti-HIV activity. A model study with N-Ethynyl-N-tosyl-2-(2-phenylethynyl)aniline and methyl cyanoformate showed that rhodium-based catalysts promote efficiently the reaction. A further optimization showed that the regioselectivity of the reaction can be tuned by the choice of the solvent or by the catalytic system. Application to a larger scope of diynes showed that the regioselectivity strongly depends on the type of substitution of the alkynyl moieties, giving regioselectivities in the range g:b = 1/0 to g:b = 0/1. This [2+2+2] cycloaddition approach for the synthesis of the g- and b-carboline cores was successfully applied to the first total synthesis of Isoperlolyrine and the total synthesis of Perlolyrine. Extension of this strategy to heterocumulenes as cycloaddition partners allowed the synthesis of a g-carbolinone, a thiopyrano[3,4-b]indol-3-imine and thiopyranothiones.

Polymer properties measured by micromechanical cantilever technique

Surface stress changes induced by specific adsorption of molecules were investigated using a micromechanical cantilever sensor (MCS) device. 16 MCS are grouped within four separate wells. Each well can be addressed independently by different liquid enabling functionalization of MCS separately by flowing different solutions through each well and performing sensing and reference experiments simultaneously. In addition, each well contains a fixed reference mirror, which allows measuring the absolute bending of MCS. The effect of the flow rate on the MCS bending change was found to be dependent on the absolute bending value of MCS. In addition, the signal from the reference mirror can be used to follow refractive index changes upon mixing different solutions. Finite element simulation of solution exchange in wells was compared with experiment results. Both revealed that one solution can be exchanged by another one after a total volume of 200 µl has flown through. Using MCS, the adsorption of thiolated deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules and 6-mercapto-1-hexanol (MCH) on gold surfaces, and the DNA hybridization were performed. The nanomechanical response is in agreement with data reported by Fritz et al.1 Thus, the multiwell device is readily applicable for sensing of multiple chemical and biological recognition events in a single step. In this context controlled release and uptake of drugs are currently widely discussed. As a model system, we have used polystyrene (PS) spheres with diameters in the order of µm. The swelling behavior of individual PS spheres in toluene vapor was studied via mass loading by means of micromechanical cantilever sensors. For 4–8% cross-linked PS a mass increase of 180% in saturated toluene vapor was measured. In addition, the diameter change in saturated toluene vapor was measured and the corresponding volume increase of 200% was calculated. The mass of the swollen PS sphere decreases with increasing exposure time to ultraviolet (UV) light. The swelling response is significantly different between the first and the second exposure to toluene vapor. This is attributed to the formation of a cross-linked shell at the surface of the PS spheres. Shape persistent parts were observed for locally UV irradiated PS spheres. These PS spheres were found to be fluorescent and cracks occur after exposure in toluene liquid. The diffusion time of dye molecules in PS spheres increases with increasing chemical cross-linking density. This concept of locally dissolving non cross-linked PS from the sphere was applied to fabricate donut structures on surfaces. Arrays of PS spheres were fabricated using spin coating. The donut structure was produced simply after liquid solvent rinsing. The complete cross-linking of PS spheres was found after long exposure time to UV. We found that stabilizers play a major role in the formation of the donut nanostructures.

Aufbau und Charakterisierung eines flugzeuggetragenen Einzelpartikel-Massenspektrometers

Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde ein flugzeuggetragenes Laserablations-Einzelpartikel-Massenspektrometer von Grund auf entworfen, gebaut, charakterisiert und auf verschiedenen Feldmesskampagnen eingesetzt. Das ALABAMA (Aircraft-based Laser ABlation Aerosol MAss Spectrometer) ist in der Lage die chemische Zusammensetzung und Größe von einzelnen Aerosolpartikeln im submikrometer-Bereich (135 – 900 nm) zu untersuchen.rnNach dem Fokussieren in einer aerodynamischen Linse wird dafür zunächst derrnaerodynamische Durchmesser der einzelnen Partikel mit Hilfe einer Flugzeitmessung zwischen zwei Dauerstrichlasern bestimmt. Anschließend werden die zuvor detektierten und klassifizierten Partikel durch einen gezielten Laserpuls einzeln verdampft und ionisiert. Die Ionen werden in einem bipolaren Flugzeit-Massenspektrometer entsprechend ihrem Masse zu- Ladungs Verhältnisses getrennt und detektiert. Die entstehenden Massenspektren bieten einen detaillierten Einblick in die chemische Struktur der einzelnen Partikel.rnDas gesamte Instrument wurde so konzipiert, dass es auf dem neuen Höhenforschungsflugzeug HALO und anderen mobilen Plattformen eingesetzt werden kann. Um dies zu ermöglichen wurden alle Komponenten in einem Rahmen mit weniger als 0.45 m³ Volumen untergebracht. Das gesamte Instrument inklusive Rahmen wiegt weniger als 150 kg und erfüllt die strengen sicherheitsvorschriften für den Betrieb an Bord von Forschungsflugzeugen. Damit ist ALABAMA das kleinste und leichteste Instrument seiner Art.rnNach dem Aufbau wurden die Eigenschaften und Grenzen aller Komponenten detailliert im Labor und auf Messkampagnen charakterisiert. Dafür wurden zunächst die Eigenschaften des Partikelstrahls, wie beispielsweise Strahlbreite und –divergenz, ausführlich untersucht. Die Ergebnisse waren wichtig, um die späteren Messungen der Detektions- und Ablationseffizienz zu validieren.rnBei den anschließenden Effizienzmessungen wurde gezeigt, dass abhängig von ihrer Größe und Beschaffenheit, bis zu 86 % der vorhandenen Aerosolpartikel erfolgreich detektiert und größenklassifiziert werden. Bis zu 99.5 % der detektierten Partikel konnten ionisiert und somit chemisch untersucht werden. Diese sehr hohen Effizienzen sind insbesondere für Messungen in großer Höhe entscheidend, da dort zum Teil nur sehr geringe Partikelkonzentrationen vorliegen.rnDas bipolare Massenspektrometer erzielt durchschnittliche Massenauflösungen von bis zu R=331. Während Labor- und Feldmessungen konnten dadurch Elemente wie Au, Rb, Co, Ni, Si, Ti und Pb eindeutig anhand ihres Isotopenmusters zugeordnet werden.rnErste Messungen an Bord eines ATR-42 Forschungsflugzeuges während der MEGAPOLI Kampagne in Paris ergaben einen umfassenden Datensatz von Aerosolpartikeln innerhalb der planetaren Grenzschicht. Das ALABAMA konnte unter harten physischen Bedingungen (Temperaturen > 40°C, Beschleunigungen +/- 2 g) verlässlich und präzise betrieben werden. Anhand von charakteristischen Signalen in den Massenspektren konnten die Partikel zuverlässig in 8 chemische Klassen unterteilt werden. Einzelne Klassen konnten dabei bestimmten Quellen zugeordnet werden. So ließen sich beispielsweise Partikel mit starkerrnNatrium- und Kaliumsignatur eindeutig auf die Verbrennung von Biomasse zurückführen.rnALABAMA ist damit ein wertvolles Instrument um Partikel in-situ zu charakterisieren und somit verschiedenste wissenschaftliche Fragestellungen, insbesondere im Bereich der Atmosphärenforschung, zu untersuchen.

Pore structure and column efficiency of silica monoliths in high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)

Five different methods were critically examined to characterize the pore structure of the silica monoliths. The mesopore characterization was performed using: a) the classical BJH method of nitrogen sorption data, which showed overestimated values in the mesopore distribution and was improved by using the NLDFT method, b) the ISEC method implementing the PPM and PNM models, which were especially developed for monolithic silicas, that contrary to the particulate supports, demonstrate the two inflection points in the ISEC curve, enabling the calculation of pore connectivity, a measure for the mass transfer kinetics in the mesopore network, c) the mercury porosimetry using a new recommended mercury contact angle values. rnThe results of the characterization of mesopores of monolithic silica columns by the three methods indicated that all methods were useful with respect to the pore size distribution by volume, but only the ISEC method with implemented PPM and PNM models gave the average pore size and distribution based on the number average and the pore connectivity values.rnThe characterization of the flow-through pore was performed by two different methods: a) the mercury porosimetry, which was used not only for average flow-through pore value estimation, but also the assessment of entrapment. It was found that the mass transfer from the flow-through pores to mesopores was not hindered in case of small sized flow-through pores with a narrow distribution, b) the liquid penetration where the average flow-through pore values were obtained via existing equations and improved by the additional methods developed according to Hagen-Poiseuille rules. The result was that not the flow-through pore size influences the column bock pressure, but the surface area to volume ratio of silica skeleton is most decisive. Thus the monolith with lowest ratio values will be the most permeable. rnThe flow-through pore characterization results obtained by mercury porosimetry and liquid permeability were compared with the ones from imaging and image analysis. All named methods enable a reliable characterization of the flow-through pore diameters for the monolithic silica columns, but special care should be taken about the chosen theoretical model.rnThe measured pore characterization parameters were then linked with the mass transfer properties of monolithic silica columns. As indicated by the ISEC results, no restrictions in mass transfer resistance were noticed in mesopores due to their high connectivity. The mercury porosimetry results also gave evidence that no restrictions occur for mass transfer from flow-through pores to mesopores in the small scaled silica monoliths with narrow distribution. rnThe prediction of the optimum regimes of the pore structural parameters for the given target parameters in HPLC separations was performed. It was found that a low mass transfer resistance in the mesopore volume is achieved when the nominal diameter of the number average size distribution of the mesopores is appr. an order of magnitude larger that the molecular radius of the analyte. The effective diffusion coefficient of an analyte molecule in the mesopore volume is strongly dependent on the value of the nominal pore diameter of the number averaged pore size distribution. The mesopore size has to be adapted to the molecular size of the analyte, in particular for peptides and proteins. rnThe study on flow-through pores of silica monoliths demonstrated that the surface to volume of the skeletons ratio and external porosity are decisive for the column efficiency. The latter is independent from the flow-through pore diameter. The flow-through pore characteristics by direct and indirect approaches were assessed and theoretical column efficiency curves were derived. The study showed that next to the surface to volume ratio, the total porosity and its distribution of the flow-through pores and mesopores have a substantial effect on the column plate number, especially as the extent of adsorption increases. The column efficiency is increasing with decreasing flow through pore diameter, decreasing with external porosity, and increasing with total porosity. Though this tendency has a limit due to heterogeneity of the studied monolithic samples. We found that the maximum efficiency of the studied monolithic research columns could be reached at a skeleton diameter of ~ 0.5 µm. Furthermore when the intention is to maximize the column efficiency, more homogeneous monoliths should be prepared.rn