Untersuchungen zur Reparatur und Mutagenität oxidativer DNA-Schäden in vivo und deren Bedeutung für die Kanzerogenese

Gegenstand dieser Arbeit war die Untersuchung, welche Rolle endogen gebildete oxidative DNA-Modifikationen bei der Kanzerogenese spielen. Dazu wurden Cockayne Syndrom B-knockout-Mäuse (Csb-/-), 8-Hydroxyguanin-DNA-Glykosylase-knockout-Mäuse (Ogg1-/-) und Csb-/-/Ogg1-/- Mäuse generiert, die das bakterielle lacI-Gen (Big Blue®) tragen und somit für in vivo Mutationstests eingesetzt werden können. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass es in den Lebern der Ogg1-/- Mäuse zu einem 2,1-fachen und in Csb-/-/Ogg1-/- Mäusen zu einem statistisch signifikanten 3,3-fachen Anstieg der Mutationsfrequenz kommt. Die gefundene Erhöhung der Mutationsfrequenz war vor allem auf eine Erhöhung der G:C zu T:A Transversionen zurückzuführen, die typischerweise aus nicht repariertem 8 Hydroxyguanin (8-oxoG) entstehen. Aus mechanistischer Sicht verdeutlichen die Ergebnisse, dass OGG1 das primäre Abwehrsystem gegen oxidative DNA-Modifikationen darstellt und dass das CSB-Protein einen Ausfall von OGG1, selbst in nicht transkribierter DNA, teilweise kompensieren kann. Aus der Korrelation der gefundenen oxidativen DNA-Schäden - bestimmt mittels Alkalischer Elution und der bakteriellen Formamidopyrimidin-DNA-Glykosylase (Fpg-Protein) - mit der Mutationsfrequenz konnte abgeleitet werden, dass bereits weniger als 0,2 Fpg-sensitive DNA-Modifikationen pro 1 Million Basenpaare ausreichen, die spontane Mutationsfrequenz in vivo zu verdoppeln. Zur Untersuchung, welche Rolle die erhöhte Mutationsfrequenz bei der Krebsentstehung spielt, wurden Csb-/-/Ogg1-/- und Wildtyp-Mäuse mit dem Peroxisomenproliferator und spezifischem Leberpromotor WY-14,643 behandelt um spontan initiierte Hepatozyten zur Proliferation anzuregen. Als Endpunkt einer malignen Entartung wurde das Auftreten von Glucose-6-Phosphatase positiven und negativen Läsionen beobachtet. Es zeigte sich, dass Csb-/-/Ogg1-/- Mäuse signifikant mehr enzymveränderte Läsionen in ihren Lebern aufwiesen, als die Wildtyp-Kontrollen. Die Ergebnisse verdeutlichen, dass endogen gebildete oxidative DNA-Modifikationen und daraus resultierende Mutationen grundsätzlich einen erheblichen Anteil zur hohen spontanen Krebsinzidenz in der Bevölkerung leisten könnten.

Development and application of a GC system for NMHC analyses of air samples from the CARIBIC aircraft project

The subject of this thesis is the development of a Gaschromatography (GC) system for non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHCs) and measurement of samples within the project CARIBIC (Civil Aircraft for the Regular Investigation of the atmosphere Based on an Instrument Container, www.caribic-atmospheric.com). Air samples collected at cruising altitude from the upper troposphere and lowermost stratosphere contain hydrocarbons at low levels (ppt range), which imposes substantial demands on detection limits. Full automation enabled to maintain constant conditions during the sample processing and analyses. Additionally, automation allows overnight operation thus saving time. A gas chromatography using flame ionization detection (FID) together with the dual column approach enables simultaneous detection with almost equal carbon atom response for all hydrocarbons except for ethyne. The first part of this thesis presents the technical descriptions of individual parts of the analytical system. Apart from the sample treatment and calibration procedures, the sample collector is described. The second part deals with analytical performance of the GC system by discussing tests that had been made. Finally, results for measurement flight are assessed in terms of quality of the data and two flights are discussed in detail. Analytical performance is characterized using detection limits for each compound, using uncertainties for each compound, using tests of calibration mixture conditioning and carbon dioxide trap to find out their influence on analyses, and finally by comparing the responses of calibrated substances during period when analyses of the flights were made. Comparison of both systems shows good agreement. However, because of insufficient capacity of the CO2 trap the signal of one column was suppressed due to breakthroughed carbon dioxide so much that its results appeared to be unreliable. Plausibility tests for the internal consistency of the given data sets are based on common patterns exhibited by tropospheric NMHCs. All tests show that samples from the first flights do not comply with the expected pattern. Additionally, detected alkene artefacts suggest potential problems with storing or contamination within all measurement flights. Two last flights # 130-133 and # 166-169 comply with the tests therefore their detailed analysis is made. Samples were analyzed in terms of their origin (troposphere vs. stratosphere, backward trajectories), their aging (NMHCs ratios) and detected plumes were compared to chemical signatures of Asian outflows. In the last chapter a future development of the presented system with focus on separation is drawn. An extensive appendix documents all important aspects of the dissertation from theoretical introduction through illustration of sample treatment to overview diagrams for the measured flights.

Gene expression analysis in ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma mali’-resistant and -susceptible Malus genotypes

Apple proliferation (AP) disease is the most important graft-transmissible and vector-borne disease of apple in Europe. ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma mali’ (Ca. P. mali) is the causal agent of AP. Apple (Malus x domestica) and other Malus species are the only known woody hosts. In European apple orchards, the cultivars are mainly grafted on one rootstock, M. x domestica cv. M9. M9 like all other M. x domestica cultivars is susceptible to ‘Ca. P. mali’. Resistance to AP was found in the wild genotype Malus sieboldii (MS) and in MS-derived hybrids but they were characterised by poor agronomic value. The breeding of a new rootstock carrying the resistant and the agronomic traits was the major aim of a project of which this work is a part. The objective was to shed light into the unknown resistance mechanism. The plant-phytoplasma interaction was studied by analysing differences between the ‘Ca. P. mali’-resistant and -susceptible genotypes related to constitutively expressed genes or to induced genes during infection. The cDNA-Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (cDNA-AFLP) technique was employed in both approaches. Differences related to constitutively expressed genes were identified between two ‘Ca. P. mali’-resistant hybrid genotypes (4551 and H0909) and the ‘Ca. P. mali’-susceptible M9. 232 cDNA-AFLP bands present in the two resistant genotypes but absent in the susceptible one were isolated but several different products associated to each band were found. Therefore, two different macroarray hybridisation experiments were performed with the cDNA-AFLP fragments yielding 40 sequences encoding for genes of unknown function or a wide array of functions including plant defence. In the second approach, individuation and analysis of the induced genes was carried out exploiting an in vitro system in which healthy and ‘Ca. P. mali’-infected micropropagated plants were maintained under controlled conditions. Infection trials using in vitro grafting of ‘Ca. P. mali’ showed that the resistance phenotype could be reproduced in this system. In addition, ex vitro plants were generated as an independent control of the genes differentially expressed in the in vitro plants. The cDNA-AFLP analysis in in vitro plants yielded 63 bands characterised by over-expression in the infected state of both the H0909 and MS genotypes. The major part (37 %) of the associated sequences showed homology with products of unknown function. The other genes were involved in plant defence, energy transport/oxidative stress response, protein metabolism and cellular growth. Real-time qPCR analysis was employed to validate the differential expression of the genes individuated in the cDNA-AFLP analysis. Since no internal controls were available for the study of the gene expression in Malus, an analysis on housekeeping genes was performed. The most stably expressed genes were the elongation factor-1 α (EF1) and the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4-A (eIF4A). Twelve out of 20 genes investigated through qPCR were significantly differentially expressed in at least one genotype either in in vitro plants or in ex vitro plants. Overall, about 20% of the genes confirmed their cDNA-AFLP expression pattern in M. sieboldii or H0909. On the contrary, 30 % of the genes showed down-regulation or were not differentially expressed. For the remaining 50 % of the genes a contrasting behaviour was observed. The qPCR data could be interpreted as follows: the phytoplasma infection unbalance photosynthetic activity and photorespiration down-regulating genes involved in photosynthesis and in the electron transfer chain. As result, and in contrast to M. x domestica genotypes, an up-regulation of genes of the general response against pathogens was found in MS. These genes involved the pathway of H2O2 and the production of secondary metabolites leading to the hypothesis that a response based on the accumulation of H2O2 in MS would be at the base of its resistance. This resembles a phenomenon known as “recovery” where the spontaneous remission of the symptoms is observed in old susceptible plants but occurring in a stochastic way while the resistance in MS is an inducible but stable feature. As additional product of this work three cDNA-AFLP-derived markers were developed which showed independent distribution among the seedlings of two breeding progenies and were associated to a genomic region characteristic of MS. These markers will contribute to the development of molecular markers for the resistance as well as to map the resistance on the Malus genome.