Identifizierung und Charakterisierung von Intermediärfilament-Organisatoren in Caenorhabditis elegans

Intermediärfilamente (IFs) sind neben Mikrotubuli und Aktinfilamenten die dritte filamentäre Komponente des Zytoskeletts. Sie wirken als mechanische Stabilisatoren, sind außerdem an Zelldifferenzierung, Proliferation und Apoptose beteiligt und tragen zu Zellpolarität bei. IFs sind dynamische Strukturen, die zelltypspezifisch in unterschiedlichen Anordnungen und Abundanzen vorkommen und von Signalkaskaden beeinflusst werden. Die zugrundeliegenden molekularen Mechanismen dieser fein abgestimmten Prozesse sind weitgehend unbekannt. In dieser Arbeit sollte deswegen ein Tiermodell entwickelt werden, um Regulatoren der IF-(Netzwerk)-Organisation in vivo zu untersuchen und zu identifizieren. Dazu wurde C. elegans ausgewählt, da es sich hierbei um einen genetisch gut charakterisierten und leicht manipulierbaren Organismus handelt, in dessen Genom elf Gene für zytoplasmatische IFs kodieren. Zunächst wurden stabil transgene C. elegans-Linien generiert, die fluoreszierende IFs exprimieren. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass das darmspezifische IFB-2::CFP im Bereich des apikalen Junktionskomplex verankert ist und nahezu vollständig im subapikalen Terminalgeflecht der Enterozyten lokalisiert, das als Teil der endotube besonders stabil und widerstandsfähig ist. Wenn diese Tiere mit dsRNA gegen das ebenfalls im Terminalgeflecht exprimierte IF ifc-2 behandelt wurden, entwickelten sich blasenförmige Ausstülpungen des Darmlumens, die auf eine Schwächung der rigiden und formgebenden endotube hinwiesen und damit einen direkten in vivo-Beweis für die stressprotektive Funktion des intestinalen IF-Netzwerks lieferten. Die leichte Detektierbarkeit des IFB-2::CFP-Musters wurde in einem optischen Screen ausgenutzt, bei dem nach chemischer Mutagenese nach Veränderungen im IF-Muster gefahndet wurde. Hierbei wurden drei Mutanten isoliert. In Komplementationsanalysen stellte sich heraus, dass es sich in zwei Fällen um Allele desselben Gens handelt. Die Identifizierung der betroffenen Gene gelang durch eine PCR-basierte Kartierung von single nucleotide polymorphisms nach Verpaarung mit dem Hawaii-Stamm (snp-mapping) und anschließender RNAi-Analyse der Einzelgene in den identifizierten Chromosomenabschnitten. Im einen Fall handelte es sich um das sma-5-Gen, einer Serin/Threonin-Kinase mit Homologie zu den MAP-Kinasen MAPK7/ERK5 der Säuger. Hier wurden, ebenso wie beim ifc-2 (RNAi)-Phänotyp, progressive blasenförmige Ausstülpungen des Darmlumens beobachtet. Die beiden anderen Allele tragen Mutationen in einem bisher nicht näher charakterisierten Gen. In diesen Würmern kommt es zu einem vollständigen Auflösung des IFB-2::CFP-Netzwerks mit prominenten Akkumulationen um die apikalen Junktionen. Das Darmlumen ist stellenweise geweitet und das elektronendichte Terminalgeflecht fehlt fast vollständig, die Integrität des Darmepithels ist jedoch nicht kompromittiert. Die anderen IFs des Terminalgeflechts sind ebenfalls fehlverteilt, und die intestinale Expression von Aktin ist stark reduziert. Expressionskonstrukte des Gens zeigten weiterhin, dass es darmspezifisch synthetisiert wird und mit den IFs im Terminalgeflecht kolokalisiert. Das Protein ist, ähnlich wie das IF-assoziierte Filaggrin der Säuger ausgesprochen histidinreich. Es enthält außerdem eine Prolin-reiche Domäne, die Teil einer potentiellen Aktin-Bindedomäne ist. Auf Grund all dieser Eigenschaften wird die Bezeichnung IFO-1 (intermediate filament organizer) für das neue Protein vorgeschlagen, das möglicherweise als struktureller Zytoskelett-Linker wirkt. Die vorgestellten Ergebnisse untermauern die Bedeutung von C. elegans für die Identifizierung von Faktoren, die IF-Netzwerke regulieren, und die Möglichkeit, Defekte im lebenden Gesamtorganismus zu bestimmen.

Neuronal differentiation and epithelial integrity: the role of Drosophila Short stop

The nervous system is the most complex organ in animals and the ordered interconnection of neurons is an essential prerequisite for normal behaviour. Neuronal connectivity requires controlled neuronal growth and differentiation. Neuronal growth essentially depends on the actin and microtubule cytoskeleton, and it has become increasingly clear, that crosslinking of these cytoskeletal fractions is a crucial regulatory process. The Drosophila Spectraplakin family member Short stop (Shot) is such a crosslinker and is crucial for several aspects of neuronal growth. Shot comprises various domains: An actin binding domain, a plakin-like domain, a rod domain, calcium responsive EF-hand motifs, a microtubule binding Gas2 domain, a GSR motif and a C-terminal EB1aff domain. Amongst other phenotypes, shot mutant animals exhibit severely reduced dendrites and neuromuscular junctions, the subcellular compartmentalisation of the transmembrane protein Fasciclin2 is affected, but it is also crucially required in other tissues, for example for the integrity of tendon cells, specialised epidermal cells which anchor muscles to the body wall. Despite these striking phenotypes, Shot function is little understood, and especially we do not understand how it can carry out functions as diverse as those described above. To bridge this gap, I capitalised on the genetic possibilities of the model system Drosophila melanogaster and carried out a structure-function analysis in different neurodevelopmental contexts and in tendon cells. To this end, I used targeted gene expression of existing and newly generated Shot deletion constructs in Drosophila embryos and larvae, analyses of different shot mutant alleles, and transfection of Shot constructs into S2 cells or cultured fibroblasts. My analyses reveal that a part of the Shot C-terminus is not essential in the nervous system but in tendon cells where it stabilises microtubules. The precise molecular mechanism underlying this activity is not yet elucidated but, based on the findings presented here, I have developed three alternative testable hypothesis. Thus, either binding of the microtubule plus-end tracking molecule EB1 through an EB1aff domain, microtubulebundling through a GSR rich motif or a combination of both may explain a context-specific requirement of the Shot C-terminus for tendon cell integrity. Furthermore, I find that the calcium binding EF-hand motif in Shot is exclusively required for a subset of neuronal functions of Shot but not in the epidermal tendon cells. These findings pave the way for complementary studies studying the impact of [Ca2+] on Shot function. Besides these differential requirements of Shot domains I find, that most Shot domains are required in the nervous system and tendon cells alike. Thus the microtubule Gas2 domain shows no context specific requirements and is equally essential in all analysed cellular contexts. Furthermore, I could demonstrate a partial requirement of the large spectrin-repeat rod domain of Shot in neuronal and epidermal contexts. I demonstrate that this domain is partially required in processes involving growth and/or tissue stability but dispensable for cellular processes where no mechanical stress resistance is required. In addition, I demonstrate that the CH1 domain a part of the N-terminal actin binding domain of Shot is only partially required for all analysed contexts. Thus, I conclude that Shot domains are functioning different in various cellular environments. In addition my study lays the base for future projects, such as the elucidation of Shot function in growth cones. Given the high degree of conservation between Shot and its mammalian orthologues MACF1/ACF7 and BPAG1, I believe that the findings presented in this study will contribute to the general understanding of spectraplakins across species borders.

Differentiation and extracellular matrix interactions of chondrocytes in response to signaling molecules and biomaterials for cartilage repair = Differenzierung und Interaktionen von Chondrozyten mit der extrazellulären Matrix als Reaktion auf Signalmoleküle und Biomaterialien für die Wiederinstandsetzung von Knorpel

Chondrocytes live isolated in the voluminous extracellular matrix of cartilage, which they secrete and is neither vascularized nor innervated. Nutrient and waste exchanges occur through diffusion leading to low oxygen tension around the cells. Consequently even normal cartilage under normal physiological conditions suffers from a poor reparative potential that predisposes to degenerative conditions, such as osteoarthritis of the joints, with significant clinical effects.rnOne of the key challenges in medicine is the structural and functional replacement of lost or damaged tissues. Current therapeutical approaches are to transplant cells, implant bioartificial tissues, and chemically induce regeneration at the site of the injury. None of them reproduces well the biological and biomechanical properties of hyaline cartilage.rnThis thesis investigates the re-differentiation of chondrocytes and the repair of cartilage mediated by signaling molecules, biomaterials, and factors provided in mixed cellular cultures (co-culture systems). As signaling molecules we have applied prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and bone morphogenetic protein 1 (BMP-1) and we have transfected chondrocytes with BMP-1 expressing vectors. Our biomaterials have been hydrogels of type-I collagen and gelatin-based scaffolds designed to mimic the architecture and biochemistry of native cartilage and provide a suitable three-dimensional environment for the cells. We have brought chondrocytes to interact with osteosarcoma Cal 72 cells or with murine preosteoblastic KS483 cells, either in a cell-to-cell or in a paracrine manner.rnExogenous stimulation with PGE2 or BMP-1 did not improve the differentiation or the proliferation of human articular chondrocytes. BMP-1 induced chondrocytic de-differentiation in a dose-dependent manner. Prostaglandin stimulation from gelatin-based scaffolds (three-dimensional culture) showed a certain degree of chondrocyte re-differentiaton. Murine preosteoblastic KS483 cells had no beneficial effect on human articular chondrocytes jointly cultivated with them in hydrogels of type I collagen. Although the hydrogels provided the chondrocytes with a proper matrix in which the cells adopted their native morphology; additionally, the expression of chondrocytic proteoglycan increased in the co-cultures after two weeks. The co-culture of chondrocytes with osteoblast-like cells (in transwell systems) resulted in suppression of the regular de-differentiation program that passaged chondrocytes undergo when cultured in monolayers. Under these conditions, the extracellular matrix of the chondrocytes, rich in type-II collagen and aggrecan, was not transformed into the extracellular matrix characteristic of de-differentiated human articular chondrocytes, which is rich in type-I collagen and versican.rnThis thesis suggests novel strategies of tissue engineering for clinical attempts to improve cartilage repair. Since implants are prepared in vitro (ex-vivo) by expanding human articular chondrocytes (autologous or allogeneic), we conclude that it will be convenient to provide a proper three-dimensional support to the chondrocytes in culture, to supplement the culture medium with PGE2, and to stimulate chondrocytes with osteoblastic factors by cultivating them with osteoblasts.rn

The role of SENP1 in B cell development and differentiation

SUMOylation is a highly dynamic and reversible posttranslational protein modification closely related to ubiquitination. SUMOylation regulates a vast array of different cellular functions, such as cell cycle, nuclear transport, DNA damage response, proliferation and transcriptional activation. Several groups have shown in in vitro studies how important SUMOylation is for early B cell development and survival as well as for later plasma cell differentiation. This thesis focuses on the deSUMOylation protease SENP1 and its in vivo effects on B cell development and differentiation. For this a conditional SENP1 knockout mouse model was crossed to the CD19-Cre mouse strain to generate a B cell specific SENP1 knockout mouse.rnIn our conditional SENP1ff CD19-Cre mouse model we observed normal numbers of all B cell subsets in the bone marrow. However in the spleen we observed an impairment of B cell survival, based on a 50% reduction of the follicular B cell compartment, whereas the marginal zone B cell compartment was unchanged. T cell numbers were comparable to control mice. rnFurther, impairments of B cell survival in SENP1ff CD19-Cre mice were analysed after in vivo blocking of IL7R signalling. The αIL7R treatment in mature mice blocked new B cell formation in the bone marrow and increased apoptosis rates could be observed in splenic SENP1 KO B cells. Additionally, a higher turnover rate of B cells was measured by in vivo BrdU incorporation.rnSince it is known that the majority of transcription factors that are important for the maintenance of the germinal centre reaction or for induction of plasma cell development are SUMOylated, the question arose, how defective deSUMOylation will manifest itself in these processes. The majority of in vitro cultured splenic B cells, stimulated to undergo class switch recombination and plasma cell differentiation underwent activation induced cell death. However, the surviving cells increasingly differentiated into IgM expressing plasma cells. Class switch recombination to IgG1 was reduced. These observations stood in line with observation made in in vivo sheep red blood cell immunization experiments, which showed increased amounts of germinal centres and germinal centre B cells, as well as increased amounts of plasma cells differentiation in combination with decreased class switch to IgG1.rnThese results lead to the conclusion that SENP1 KO B cells increasingly undergo apoptosis, however, B cells that survive SENP1 deficiency are more prone to undergo plasma cell differentiation. Further, the precursors of these plasma cells either are not as capable of undergoing class switch recombination or they do switch to IgG1 and succumb to activation induced cell death. One possible explanation for both scenarios could be a defective DNA damage response mechanisms during class switch recombination, caused by impaired deSUMOylation. rn