Foliation boudinage

In this thesis foliation boudinage and related structures have been studied based on field observations and numerical modeling. Foliation boudinage occurs in foliated rocks independent of lithology contrast. The developing structures are called ‘Foliation boudinage structures (FBSs)’ and show evidence for both ductile and brittle deformation. They are recognized in rocks by perturbations in monotonous foliation adjacent to a central discontinuity, mostly filled with vein material. Foliation boudinage structures have been studied in the Çine Massif in SW-Turkey and the Furka Pass-Urseren Zone in central Switzerland. Four common types have been distinguished in the field, named after vein geometries in their boudin necks in sections normal to the boudin axis: lozenge-, crescent-, X- and double crescent- type FBSs. Lozengetype FBSs are symmetric and characterized by lozenge-shaped veins in their boudin neck with two cusps facing opposite sides. A symmetrical pair of flanking folds occurs on the two sides of the vein. Crescent-type FBSs are asymmetric with a single smoothly curved vein in the boudin neck, with vein contacts facing to one side. X- and double crescent- type FBSs are asymmetric. The geometry of the neck veins resembles that of cuspate-lobate structures. The geometry of flanking structures is related to the shape of the veins. The veins are mostly filled with massive quartz in large single crystals, commonly associated with tourmaline, feldspar and biotite and in some cases with chlorite. The dominance of large facetted single quartz crystals and spherulitic chlorite in the veins suggest that the minerals grew into open fluidfilled space. FLAC experiments show that fracture propagation during ductile deformation strongly influences the geometry of developing veins. The cusps of the veins are better developed in the case of propagating fractures. The shape of the boudin neck veins in foliation boudinage depends on the initial orientation and shape of the fracture, the propagation behaviour of the fracture, the geometry of bulk flow, and the stage at which mineral filling takes place. A two dimensional discrete element model was used to study the progressive development of foliation boudinage structures and the behavior of visco-elastic material deformed under pure shear conditions. Discrete elements are defined by particles that are connected by visco-elastic springs. Springs can break. A number of simulations was Abstract vii performed to investigate the effect of material properties (Young’s modulus, viscosity and breaking strength) and anisotropy on the developing structures. The models show the development of boudinage in single layers, multilayers and in anisotropic materials with random mica distribution. During progressive deformation different types of fractures develop from mode I, mode II to the combination of both. Voids develop along extension fractures, at intersections of conjugate shear fractures and in small pull-apart structures along shear fractures. These patterns look similar to the natural examples. Fractures are more localized in the models where the elastic constants are low and the competence contrast is high between the layers. They propagate through layers where the constants are high and the competence contrast is relatively low. Flow localize around these fractures and voids. The patterns similar to symmetric boudinage structures and extensional neck veins (e.g. lozenge type) more commonly develop in the models with lower elastic constants and anisotropy. The patterns similar to asymmetric foliation boudinage structures (e.g. X-type) develop associated with shear fractures in the models where elastic constants and anisotropy of the materials are relatively high. In these models boudin neck veins form commonly at pull-aparts along the shear fractures and at the intersection of fractures.

Magnetization dynamics in spin valves

Key technology applications like magnetoresistive sensors or the Magnetic Random Access Memory (MRAM) require reproducible magnetic switching mechanisms. i.e. predefined remanent states. At the same time advanced magnetic recording schemes push the magnetic switching time into the gyromagnetic regime. According to the Landau-Lifschitz-Gilbert formalism, relevant questions herein are associated with magnetic excitations (eigenmodes) and damping processes in confined magnetic thin film structures.rnObjects of study in this thesis are antiparallel pinned synthetic spin valves as they are extensively used as read heads in today’s magnetic storage devices. In such devices a ferromagnetic layer of high coercivity is stabilized via an exchange bias field by an antiferromagnet. A second hard magnetic layer, separated by a non-magnetic spacer of defined thickness, aligns antiparallel to the first. The orientation of the magnetization vector in the third ferromagnetic NiFe layer of low coercivity - the freelayer - is then sensed by the Giant MagnetoResistance (GMR) effect. This thesis reports results of element specific Time Resolved Photo-Emission Electron Microscopy (TR-PEEM) to image the magnetization dynamics of the free layer alone via X-ray Circular Dichroism (XMCD) at the Ni-L3 X-ray absorption edge.rnThe ferromagnetic systems, i.e. micron-sized spin valve stacks of typically deltaR/R = 15% and Permalloy single layers, were deposited onto the pulse leading centre stripe of coplanar wave guides, built in thin film wafer technology. The ferromagnetic platelets have been applied with varying geometry (rectangles, ellipses and squares), lateral dimension (in the range of several micrometers) and orientation to the magnetic field pulse to study the magnetization behaviour in dependence of these magnitudes. The observation of magnetic switching processes in the gigahertz range became only possible due to the joined effort of producing ultra-short X-ray pulses at the synchrotron source BESSY II (operated in the so-called low-alpha mode) and optimizing the wave guide design of the samples for high frequency electromagnetic excitation (FWHM typically several 100 ps). Space and time resolution of the experiment could be reduced to d = 100 nm and deltat = 15 ps, respectively.rnIn conclusion, it could be shown that the magnetization dynamics of the free layer of a synthetic GMR spin valve stack deviates significantly from a simple phase coherent rotation. In fact, the dynamic response of the free layer is a superposition of an averaged critically damped precessional motion and localized higher order spin wave modes. In a square platelet a standing spin wave with a period of 600 ps (1.7 GHz) was observed. At a first glance, the damping coefficient was found to be independent of the shape of the spin-valve element, thus favouring the model of homogeneous rotation and damping. Only by building the difference in the magnetic rotation between the central region and the outer rim of the platelet, the spin wave becomes visible. As they provide an additional efficient channel for energy dissipation, spin waves contribute to a higher effective damping coefficient (alpha = 0.01). Damping and magnetic switching behaviour in spin valves thus depend on the geometry of the element. Micromagnetic simulations reproduce the observed higher-order spin wave mode.rnBesides the short-run behaviour of the magnetization of spin valves Permalloy single layers with thicknesses ranging from 3 to 40 nm have been studied. The phase velocity of a spin wave in a 3 nm thick ellipse could be determined to 8.100 m/s. In a rectangular structure exhibiting a Landau-Lifschitz like domain pattern, the speed of the field pulse induced displacement of a 90°-Néel wall has been determined to 15.000 m/s.rn