Synaptic connectivity in micropatterned networks of neuronal cells

The presented thesis describes the formation of functional neuronal networks on an underlying micropattern. Small circuits of interconnected neurons defined by the geometry of the patterned substrate could be observed and were utilised as a model system of reduced complexity for the behaviour of neuronal network formation and activity. The first set of experiments was conducted to investigate aspects of the substrate preparation. Micropatterned substrates were created by microcontact printing of physiological proteins onto polystyrene culture dishes. The substrates displayed a high contrast between the repellant background and the cell attracting pattern, such that neurons seeded onto these surfaces aligned with the stamped structure. Both the patterning process and the cell culture were optimised, yielding highly compliant low-density networks of living neuronal cells. In the second step, cellular physiology of the cells grown on these substrates was investigated by patch-clamp measurements and compared to cells cultivated under control conditions. It could be shown that the growth on a patterned substrate did not result in an impairment of cellular integrity nor that it had an impact on synapse formation or synaptic efficacy. Due to the extremely low-density cell culture that was applied, cellular connectivity through chemical synapses could be observed at the single cell level. Having established that single cells were not negatively affected by the growth on patterned substrates, aspects of network formation were investigated. The formation of physical contact between two cells was analysed through microinjection studies and related to the rate at which functional synaptic contacts formed between two neighbouring cells. Surprisingly, the rate of synapse formation between physically contacting cells was shown to be unaltered in spite of the drastic reduction of potential interaction partners on the micropattern. Additional features of network formation were investigated and found consistent with results reported by other groups: A different rate of synapse formation by excitatory and inhibitory neurons could be reproduced as well as a different rate of frequency-dependent depression at excitatory and inhibitory synapses. Furthermore, regarding simple feedback loops, a significant enrichment of reciprocal connectivity between mixed pairs of excitatory and inhibitory neurons relative to uniform pairs could be demonstrated. This phenomenon has also been described by others in unpatterned cultures [Muller, 1997] and may therefore be a feature underlying neuronal network formation in general. Based on these findings, it can be assumed that inherent features of neuronal behaviour and cellular recognition mechanisms were found in the cultured networks and appear to be undisturbed by patterned growth. At the same time, it was possible to reduce the complexity of the forming networks dramatically in a cell culture on a patterned surface. Thus, features of network architecture and synaptic connectivity could be investigated on the single cell level under highly defined conditions.

Netzwerke von Nervenzellen auf strukturierten Oberflächen charakterisiert mit optischen und elektrophysiologischen Methoden

Das Wachstum von Nervenzellen und deren Verbindungen im zentralen und peripheren Nervensystem wird durch Proteine der extrazellulären Matrix kontrolliert. In dieser Arbeit wurde das Matrixprotein Laminin verwendet, um Netzwerke von Nervenzellen auf künstlichen Substraten in vitro zu erzeugen. Zu diesem Zweck wurden Lamininstrukturen mit Mikrostempeln aus Polydimethylsiloxan auf Zellkultursubstrate übertragen. Die Mikrostempel wurden in einem mehrstufigen Verfahren durch Abformung von photolithographisch hergestellten Masken angefertigt. Nach Vorversuchen mit neuronal differenzierten Zellen der Zellinien MzN und P19 zur Identifizierung geeigneter Abmessungen der Mikrotrukturen, gelang die Realisierung von Linien- und Gitternetzwerken sowie von komplexeren Schaltungen. Eine morphologische Charakterisierung der erzeugten Netzwerke erfolgte durch Phasenkontrast- und Fluoreszenzmikroskopie.Elektrophysiologische Messungen wurden mit der Patch-Clamp Technik an einer Kultur von Nervenzellen aus primär isolierten Hirnschnitten durchgeführt. Der Erhalt des intakten Zellverbundes im Hirnschnitt sollte Bedingungen möglichst nahe zur Situation in vivo schaffen, um die Bildung von Synapsen zu begünstigen. In Patch-Clamp Messungen an bis zu drei Neuronen gleichzeitig, gelang der Nachweis synaptischer Kopplung in strukturierten Netzwerken solcher Hirnschnitt-Kulturen. Sowohl funktionale chemische Synapsen, als auch Ohm'sche Kopplung über Gap-Junctions wurde beobachtet. Es wurde ein elektrisches Kopplungsmodell abgeleitet. Die Signalleitung in den Nervenfasern erfolgt demnach wie in einem zylindrischen, durch die Zellmembran von der Umgebung isolierten Kabel.

Analysing the role of short stop during the formation of synaptic terminals in Drosophila melanogaster

Diese Arbeit untersucht die Funktion des Spektraplakin Proteins Short Stop (Shot) während der strukturellen Differenzierung von synaptischen Endigungen in Drosophila melanogaster. Im Allgemeinen scheinen Proteine der Spektraplakin Familie multiple Protein-Protein Interaktionen mithilfe ihrer unterschiedlichen modularen Domänen zu vermitteln. In der vorgelegten Arbeit sollten spezifische Domänen identifiziert werden, die für die Ausbildung synaptischer Endigungen notwendig sind. Hierzu wurden shot-Funktionsverlustmutationen, für die zum Teil molekulare Information über die Mutationsereignisse erhältlich sind, anhand von verschiedenen Markern für synaptische Proteine analysiert. Ferner konnten einzelne Protein Domänen von Shot in neuronalen Geweben mithilfe des Gal4/UAS-Systems exprimiert und ihre Lokalisation untersucht werden. Darüber hinaus wurden immunohistochemische Studien unter Verwendung von Antikörpern, welche spezifisch für unterschiedliche Shot Protein Domänen sind, ausgeführt. Schließlich sollte das Yeast-two-Hybrid’-System sowie genetische Studien Interaktionspartner von Shot identifizieren. Die Unterschiedlichen experimentellen Ansätze deuten darauf hin, dass die einzelnen Protein Domänen von Shot unterschiedliche Protein-Protein Interaktionen vermitteln. Der N-Terminus von Shot scheint essentiell für die Ausbildung motorneuronaler Endigungen zu sein. Außerdem konnten mehrere potentielle Interaktionspartner identifiziert werden, so dass die hier beschriebenen Ergebnisse eine Grundlage für weitere Studien zur Untersuchung der strukturellen Differenzierung synaptischer Endigungen darstellen.

From lipid bilayers to synaptic vesicles: atomic force microscopy on lipid-based systems

The aim of this thesis was to apply the techniques of the atomic force microscope (AFM) to biological samples, namely lipid-based systems. To this end several systems with biological relevance based on self-assembly, such as a solid-supported membrane (SSM) based sensor for transport proteins, a bilayer of the natural lipid extract from an archaebacterium, and synaptic vesicles, were investigated by the AFM. For the characterization of transport proteins with SSM-sensors proteoliposomes are adsorbed that contain the analyte (transport protein). However the forces governing bilayer-bilayer interactions in solution should be repulsive under physiological conditions. I investigated the nature of the interaction forces with AFM force spectroscopy by mimicking the adsorbing proteoliposome with a cantilever tip, which was functionalized with charged alkane thiols. The nature of the interaction is indeed repulsive, but the lipid layers assemble in stacks on the SSM, which expose their unfavourable edges to the medium. I propose a model by which the proteoliposomes interact with these edges and fuse with the bilayer stacks, so forming a uniform layer on the SSM. Furthermore I characterized freestanding bilayers from a synthetic phospholipid with a phase transition at 41°C and from a natural lipid extract of the archaebacterium Methanococcus jannaschii. The synthetic lipid is in the gel-phase at room temperature and changes to the fluid phase when heated to 50°C. The bilayer of the lipid extract shows no phase transition when heated from room temperature to the growth temperature (~ 50°C) of the archeon. Synaptic vesicles are the containers of neurotransmitter in nerve cells and the synapsins are a family of extrinsic membrane proteins, that are associated with them, and believed to control the synaptic vesicle cycle. I used AFM imaging and force spectroscopy together with dynamic light scattering to investigate the influence of synapsin I on synaptic vesicles. To this end I used native, untreated synaptic vesicles and compared them to synapsin-depleted synaptic vesicles. Synapsin-depleted vesicles were larger in size and showed a higher tendency to aggregate compared to native vesicles, although their mechanical properties were alike. I also measured the aggregation kinetics of synaptic vesicles induced by synapsin I and found that the addition of synapsin I promotes a rapid aggregation of synaptic vesicles. The data indicate that synapsin I affects the stability and the aggregation state of synaptic vesicles, and confirm the physiological role of synapsins in the assembly and regulation of synaptic vesicle pools within nerve cells.

Membrane properties and synaptic integration of identified neuronal populations in the developing rodent neocortex

In my PhD work I concentrated on three elementary questions that are essential to understand the interactions between the different neuronal cell populations in the developing neocortex. The questions regarded the identity of Cajal-Retzius (CR) cells, the ubiquitous expression of glycine receptors in all major cell populations of the immature neocortex, and the role of taurine in the modulation of immature neocortical network activity.rnTo unravel whether CR cells of different ontogenetic origin have divergent functions I investigated the electrophysiological properties of YFP+ (derived from the septum and borders of the pallium) and YFP− CR cells (derived from other neocortical origins). This study demonstrated that the passive and active electrophysiological properties as well as features of GABAergic PSCs and glutamatergic currents are similar between both CR cell populations. These findings suggest that CR cells of different origins most probably support similar functions within the neuronal networks of the early postnatal cerebral cortex.rnTo elucidate whether glycine receptors are expressed in all major cell populations of the developing neocortex I analyzed the functional expression of glycine receptors on subplate (SP) cells. Activation of glycine receptors by glycine, -alanine and taurine elicited membrane responses that could be blocked by the selective glycinergic antagonist strychnine. Pharmacological experiments suggest that SP cells express functional heteromeric glycine receptors that do not contain 1 subunits. The activation of glycine receptors by glycine and taurine induced a membrane depolarization, which mediated excitatory effects. Considering the key role of SP cells in immature cortical networks and the development of thalamocortical connections, this glycinergic excitation may influence the properties of early cortical networks and the formation of cortical circuits.rnIn the third part of my project I demonstrated that tonic taurine application induced a massive increase in the frequency of PSCs. Based on their reversal potential and their pharmacological properties these taurine-induced PSCs are exclusively transmitted via GABAA receptors to the pyramidal neurons, while both GABAA and glycine receptors were implicated in the generation of the presynaptic activity. Accordingly, whole-cell and cell-attached recordings from genetically labeled interneurons revealed the expression of glycine and GABAA receptors, which mediated an excitatory action on these cells. These findings suggest that low taurine concentrations can tonically activate exclusively GABAergic networks. The activity level maintained by this GABAergic activity in the immature nervous system may contribute to network properties and can facilitate the activity dependent formation of adequate synaptic projections.rnIn summary, the results of my studies complemented the knowledge about neuronal interactions in the immature neocortex and improve our understanding of cellular processes that guide neuronal development and thus shape the brain.rn

Synthesis of polyphenylene cylinders with different sizes and connectivity patterns as well as study of their linear congeners

In dieser Arbeit wird die Synthese von Polyphenylenzylindern (PPZ) und strukturell verwandten Molekülen beschrieben, die in unterschiedlichen Größen und verschiedenartigen Bindungsmustern dargestellt wurden. Aufgrund ihres Aufbaus sind sie direkte Vorläufermoleküle von Kohlenstoffnanoröhren (CNT)s. Ziel war es, zunächst zu untersuchen, ob sich PPZs darstellen lassen. In einem anschließenden Schritt wurde die nasschemische Synthese von CNTs untersucht, die auf diesem Weg bisher noch nicht erreicht werden konnte. Die hier studierten Strukturen führten zu vielversprechenden Ergebnisse auf diesem Weg, da die oxidative Cyclodehydrierung – eine intramolekulare Anellierung – zur Bildung von ca. 50% der notwendigen Bindungen führte.

Synaptic circuitry of ganglion cells in the mammalian retina

Before signals of the visual environment are transferred to higher brain areas via the optic nerve, they are processed and filtered in parallel pathways within the retina. In the past a plethora of functionally distinct ganglion cell types responding to certain aspects of the environment, such as direction of movement, contrast and colour have been described. Aim of this thesis was the anatomical investigation of the selectivity in retinal circuits underlying this diversity. For this purpose, mouse and macaque retinae were analysed. OFF-ganglion cells in the mouse retina received their excitatory drive unselectively from all bipolar cell types stratifying within the area of their dendritic trees. Only the input to direction-selective C6 ganglion cells and bistratified D2 ganglion cells appeared to be weighted. In primates the highly specialised midget-system forms a 1:1 connection from red- and green-sensitive cones onto midget bipolar- and ganglion cells, building the substrate for red/green colour vision. Here it was demonstrated that blue-sensitive (S-) cones also contact OFF-midget bipolars and are, thus, potential candidates to transfer blue-OFF signals to M1 intrinsically photosensitive ganglion cells (ipRGCs). M1 cells received glycinergic input from A8 amacrine cells and express GABAA receptors containing subunit alpha 3. M2 cells, in contrast, received less inhibitory input.