Funktionelle Analyse der Gliazellwanderung im Drosophila-Embryo

Gliazellen kommen in allen höheren Organismen vor und sind sowohl für die korrekte Entwicklung, als auch für die Funktionalität des adulten Nervensystems unerlässlich. Eine der mannigfachen Funktionen dieses Zelltyps ist die Umhüllung von Axonen im zentralen und peripheren Nervensystem (ZNS und PNS). Um eine vollständige Umhüllung zu gewährleisten, wandern Gliazellen während der Neurogenese zum Teil über enorme Distanzen von ihrem Entstehungsort aus. Dies trifft insbesondere auf die Gliazellen zu, durch deren Membranausläufer die distalen Axonbereiche der peripheren Nerven isoliert werden.rnIn dieser Arbeit wurde die Migration von Gliazellen anhand des Modelorganismus Drosophila untersucht. Ein besonderes Interesse galt dabei der Wanderung einer distinkten Population von Gliazellen, den sogenannten embryonalen Peripheren Gliazellen (ePG). Die ePGs werden überwiegend im sich entwickelnden ventralen Bauchmark geboren und wandern anschließend entlang der peripheren Nerventrakte nach dorsal aus, um diese bis zum Ende der Embryogenese zu umhüllen und dadurch die gliale Blut-Nerv-Schranke zu etablieren. Das Hauptziel dieser Arbeit bestand darin, neue Faktoren bzw. Mechanismen aufzudecken, durch welche die Migration der ePGs reguliert wird. Dazu wurde zunächst der wildtypische Verlauf ihrer Wanderung detailliert analysiert. Es stellte sich heraus, dass in jedem abdominalen Hemisegment eine invariante Anzahl von 12 ePGs von distinkten neuralen Vorläuferzellen generiert wird, die individuelle Identitäten besitzen und mittels molekularer Marker auf Einzelzellebene identifiziert werden können. Basierend auf der charakteristischen Lage der Zellen erfolgte die Etablierung einer neuen, konsistenten Nomenklatur für sämtliche ePGs. Darüber hinaus offenbarten in vivo Migrationsanalysen, dass die Wanderung individueller ePGs stereotyp verläuft und demzufolge weitestgehend prädeterminiert ist. Die genaue Kenntnis der wildtypischen ePG Migration auf Einzelzellebene diente anschließend als Grundlage für detaillierte Mutantenanalysen. Anhand derer konnte für den ebenfalls als molekularen Marker verwendeten Transkriptionsfaktor Castor eine Funktion als zellspezifische Determinante für die korrekte Spezifizierung der ePG6 und ePG8 nachgewiesen werden, dessen Verlust in einem signifikanten Migrationsdefekt dieser beiden ePGs resultiert. Des Weiteren konnte mit Netrin (NetB) der erste diffusible und richtungsweisende Faktor für die Migration von ePGs enthüllt werden, der in Interaktion mit dem Rezeptor Uncoordinated5 speziell die Wanderung der ePG6 und ePG8 leitet. Die von den übrigen Gliazellen unabhängige Navigation der ePG6 und ePG8 belegt, dass zumindest die Migration von Gruppen der ePGs durch unterschiedliche Mechanismen kontrolliert wird, was durch die Resultate der durchgeführten Ablationsexperimente bestätigt wird. rnFerner konnte gezeigt werden, dass während der frühen Gliogenese eine zuvor unbekannte, von Neuroblasten bereitgestellte Netrinquelle an der initialen Wegfindung der Longitudinalen Gliazellen (eine Population Neuropil-assoziierter Gliazellen im ZNS) beteiligt ist. In diesem Kontext erfolgt die Signaldetektion bereits in deren Vorläuferzelle, dem Longitudinalen Glioblasten, zellautonom über den Rezeptor Frazzled. rnFür künftige Mutantenscreens zur Identifizierung weiterer an der Migration der ePGs beteiligter Faktoren stellt die in dieser Arbeit präsentierte detaillierte Beschreibung eine wichtige Grundlage dar. Speziell in Kombination mit den vorgestellten molekularen Markern liefert sie die Voraussetzung dafür, individuelle ePGs auch im mutanten Hintergrund zu erfassen, wodurch selbst subtile Phänotypen überhaupt erst detektiert und auf Einzelzellebene analysiert werden können. Aufgrund der aufgezeigten voneinander unabhängigen Wegfindung, erscheinen Mutantenanalysen ohne derartige Möglichkeiten wenig erfolgversprechend, da Mutationen vermutlich mehrheitlich die Migration einzelner oder weniger ePGs beeinträchtigen. Letzten Endes wird somit die Aussicht verbessert, weitere neuartige Migrationsfaktoren im Modellorganismus Drosophila zu entschlüsseln, die gegebenenfalls bis hin zu höheren Organismen konserviert sind und folglich zum Verständnis der Gliazellwanderung in Vertebraten beitragen.

Identification of preferentially targeted tumor-associated antigens in melanoma patients via mRNA stimulation of CD8+ blood lymphocytes

Until now, therapeutic vaccination of cancer patients has mainly relied on rather few T cell epitopes processed from structurally normal shared tumor antigens and presented by frequent HLA alleles. So far the design of these studies has not addressed the individuality of tumor-host interactions, which are not only determined by the antigenic tumor phenotype or the natural HLA polymorphism, but also by the individual T cell repertoire. The procedure described herein was developed to identify the preferential targets of the individual repertoire from a panel of known shared tumor-associated antigens. Lymphocytes were isolated from the peripheral blood of cancer patients or healthy donors and stimulated twice with autologous mRNA-transfected FastDC (Dauer et al., J Immunol. 170:4069, 2003). FastDC were generated from blood monocytes and separately transfected via lipofection with in vitro transcribed mRNAs encoding the panel antigens. Responder lymphocytes were tested on day 12 in a 20-hour IFN-g ELISPOT assay for recognition of 293T cells co-transfected pairwise with plasmids encoding the stimulation antigens and the respective individual’s HLA class I alleles. In a first step, stimulation parameters were optimized for the detection of anti-HCMV pp65 responses. A maximum amplification of pp65-specific CD8+ T cell responses was obtained at a rather low IL-2 concentration (25 IU/ml) and at a minimum APC-to-effector ratio of 1:10. Addition of IL-4, IL-7 or IL-15 did not substantially improve the stimulatory potential. The test was applied to the human melanoma models D05 and MZ2, in both of which multiple T cell-defined antigens had previously been identified by expression screening. Blood lymphocytes were stimulated in parallel with autologous tumor cells and with mRNA-transfected FastDC. In D05, T cell reactivities against three out of eleven epitopes induced by stimulation with tumor cells were also found after stimulation with mRNA-transfected FastDC. Two further T cell target epitopes were identified with mRNA but not with tumor cell stimulation. In MZ2, T cell responses against five distinct epitopes were detected on day 12 after stimulation with mRNA transfectants. The same responses were detectable after stimulation with tumor cells only on day 32. mRNA stimulations against 21 tumor-associated antigens in addition to HCMV pp65 were performed in four healthy individuals. In all cases, CD8+ T cells against HCMV pp65 could be expanded. Among tumor-associated antigens, only reactivity against Melan-A/MART-1 in association with HLA-A*0201 was detectable in one of the donors. The vaccination of patients with targets a priori known to be recognized by their T cell repertoire may help to improve the outcome of therapeutic vaccination.

Early steps in ventral nerve cord development in chelicerates and myriapods and formation of brain compartments in spiders

The central point of this work is the investigation of neurogenesis in chelicerates and myriapods. By comparing decisive mechanisms in neurogenesis in the four arthropod groups (Chelicerata, Crustacea, Insecta, Myriapoda) I was able to show which of these mechanisms are conserved and which developmental modules have diverged. Thereby two processes of embryonic development of the central nervous system were brought into focus. On the one hand I studied early neurogenesis in the ventral nerve cord of the spiders Cupiennius salei and Achaearanea tepidariorum and the millipede Glomeris marginata and on the other hand the development of the brain in Cupiennius salei.rnWhile the nervous system of insects and crustaceans is formed by the progeny of single neural stem cells (neuroblasts), in chelicerates and myriapods whole groups of cells adopt the neural cell fate and give rise to the ventral nerve cord after their invagination. The detailed comparison of the positions and the number of the neural precursor groups within the neuromeres in chelicerates and myriapods showed that the pattern is almost identical which suggests that the neural precursors groups in these arthropod groups are homologous. This pattern is also very similar to the neuroblast pattern in insects. This raises the question if the mechanisms that confer regional identity to the neural precursors is conserved in arthropods although the mode of neural precursor formation is different. The analysis of the functions and expression patterns of genes which are known to be involved in this mechanism in Drosophila melanogaster showed that neural patterning is highly conserved in arthropods. But I also discovered differences in early neurogenesis which reflect modifications and adaptations in the development of the nervous systems in the different arthropod groups.rnThe embryonic development of the brain in chelicerates which was investigated for the first time in this work shows similarities but also some modifications to insects. In vertebrates and arthropods the adult brain is composed of distinct centres with different functions. Investigating how these centres, which are organised in smaller compartments, develop during embryogenesis was part of this work. By tracing the morphogenetic movements and analysing marker gene expressions I could show the formation of the visual brain centres from the single-layered precheliceral neuroectoderm. The optic ganglia, the mushroom bodies and the arcuate body (central body) are formed by large invaginations in the peripheral precheliceral neuroectoderm. This epithelium itself contains neural precursor groups which are assigned to the respective centres and thereby build the three-dimensional optical centres. The single neural precursor groups are distinguishable during this process leading to the assumption that they carry positional information which might subdivide the individual brain centres into smaller functional compartments.rn

Antigen-dependent induction of a CD40 signal in peripheral B cells

Monoclonal antibodies have emerged as one of the most promising therapeutics in oncology over the last decades. The generation of fully human tumorantigen-specific antibodies suitable for anti-tumor therapy is laborious and difficult to achieve. Autoreactive B cells expressing those antibodies are detectable in cancer patients and represent a suitable source for human antibodies. However, the isolation and cultivation of this cell type is challenging. A novel method was established to identify antigen-specific B cells. The method is based on the conversion of the antigen independent CD40 signal into an antigen-specific one. For that, the artificial fusion proteins ABCos1 and ABCos2 (Antigen-specific B cell co-stimulator) were generated, which consist of an extracellular association-domain derived from the constant region of the human immunoglobulin (Ig) G1, a transmembrane fragment and an intracellular signal transducer domain derived of the cytoplasmic domain of the human CD40 receptor. By the association with endogenous Ig molecules the heterodimeric complex allows the antigen-specific stimulation of both the BCR and CD40. In this work the ability of the ABCos constructs to associate with endogenous IgG molecules was shown. Moreover, crosslinking of ABCos stimulates the activation of NF-κB in HEK293-lucNifty and induces proliferation in B cells. The stimulation of ABCos in transfected B cells results in an activation pattern different from that induced by the conventional CD40 signal. ABCos activated B cells show a mainly IgG isotype specific activation of memory B cells and are characterized by high proliferation and the differentiation into plasma cells. To validate the approach a model system was conducted: B cells were transfected with IVT-RNA encoding for anti-Plac1 B cell receptor (antigen-specific BCR), ABCos or both. The stimulation with the BCR specific Plac1 peptide induces proliferation only in the cotransfected B cell population. Moreover, we tested the method in human IgG+ memory B cells from CMV infected blood donors, in which the stimulation of ABCos transfected B cells with a CMV peptide induces antigen-specific expansion. These findings show that challenging ABCos transfected B cells with a specific antigen results in the activation and expansion of antigen-specific B cells and not only allows the identification but also cultivation of these B cells. The described method will help to identify antigen-specific B cells and can be used to characterize (tumor) autoantigen-specific B cells and allows the generation of fully human antibodies that can be used as diagnostic tool as well as in cancer therapy.