Antigen-dependent induction of a CD40 signal in peripheral B cells

Monoclonal antibodies have emerged as one of the most promising therapeutics in oncology over the last decades. The generation of fully human tumorantigen-specific antibodies suitable for anti-tumor therapy is laborious and difficult to achieve. Autoreactive B cells expressing those antibodies are detectable in cancer patients and represent a suitable source for human antibodies. However, the isolation and cultivation of this cell type is challenging. A novel method was established to identify antigen-specific B cells. The method is based on the conversion of the antigen independent CD40 signal into an antigen-specific one. For that, the artificial fusion proteins ABCos1 and ABCos2 (Antigen-specific B cell co-stimulator) were generated, which consist of an extracellular association-domain derived from the constant region of the human immunoglobulin (Ig) G1, a transmembrane fragment and an intracellular signal transducer domain derived of the cytoplasmic domain of the human CD40 receptor. By the association with endogenous Ig molecules the heterodimeric complex allows the antigen-specific stimulation of both the BCR and CD40. In this work the ability of the ABCos constructs to associate with endogenous IgG molecules was shown. Moreover, crosslinking of ABCos stimulates the activation of NF-κB in HEK293-lucNifty and induces proliferation in B cells. The stimulation of ABCos in transfected B cells results in an activation pattern different from that induced by the conventional CD40 signal. ABCos activated B cells show a mainly IgG isotype specific activation of memory B cells and are characterized by high proliferation and the differentiation into plasma cells. To validate the approach a model system was conducted: B cells were transfected with IVT-RNA encoding for anti-Plac1 B cell receptor (antigen-specific BCR), ABCos or both. The stimulation with the BCR specific Plac1 peptide induces proliferation only in the cotransfected B cell population. Moreover, we tested the method in human IgG+ memory B cells from CMV infected blood donors, in which the stimulation of ABCos transfected B cells with a CMV peptide induces antigen-specific expansion. These findings show that challenging ABCos transfected B cells with a specific antigen results in the activation and expansion of antigen-specific B cells and not only allows the identification but also cultivation of these B cells. The described method will help to identify antigen-specific B cells and can be used to characterize (tumor) autoantigen-specific B cells and allows the generation of fully human antibodies that can be used as diagnostic tool as well as in cancer therapy.

Regulation der BDNF-Expression in Endothelzellen

Das Neurotrophin BDNF ist ein protektiver Faktor, der das Wachstum, die Differenzierung und das Überleben neuronaler Zellen fördert. Neben der neuronalen Expression wird BDNF auch peripher exprimiert, so auch in Endothelzellen. Dort stimuliert BDNF die Angiogenese und fördert das Endothelzellüberleben. Eine Regulation der BDNF-Expression unter pathologischen Bedingungen wie Epilepsie, M. Alzheimer, M. Parkinson, Depression und Ischämie ist bereits mehrfach beschrieben worden. Literaturdaten zeigen veränderte BDNF-Expressionen unter pathologischen Bedingungen zeitgleich mit einem erhöhten Spiegel des Tumornekrosefaktors (TNF-a) bzw. einer Aktivierung der Proteinkinase C (PKC). Ob ein erhöhter TNF-a-Spiegel bzw. die Aktivierung der PKC Ursache der veränderten BDNF-Expression ist, ist bisher noch nicht bekannt. In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass sowohl TNF-a als auch eine Aktivierung der PKC in peripheren Endothelzellen die BDNF-Expression konzentrations- und zeitabhängig reduziert. Im Fall von TNF-a wird diese Reduktion über den TNF-a-Rezeptor 1 (TNFR1) vermittelt und auf dem Niveau der Transkription reguliert. Weiterhin konnte gezeigt werden, dass BDNF die Angiogenese-Aktivität von humanen Umbilikalvenen-Endothelzellen (HUVEC) in Abhängigkeit der BDNF-Rezeptoren TrkB und p75NTR stimuliert. TNF-a hingegen reduziert die Angiogenese in HUVEC. Bei der Regulation der BDNF-Expression durch den PKC-aktivierenden Phorbolester Phorbol-12-Myristat-13-Acetat (PMA) konnte eine Beteiligung der PKC-Isoformen d gezeigt werden. Die Verminderung der BDNF-Expression durch PKC-Aktivierung konnte durch Inhibitoren der PKC d aufgehoben werden. PMA hatte keine destabilisierende Wirkung auf die BDNF-mRNA. Auch hier wird BDNF durch PMA auf dem Niveau der Transkription reguliert. Weiterhin ist bisher eine pharmakologische Regulation der BDNF-Expression noch nicht näher untersucht worden. Erstmalig konnte eine Wirkung des b1-Adrenorezeptorblockers Nebivolol auf die BDNF-mRNA-Expression beobachtet werden. Nebivolol erhöht die BDNF-Expression in zerebralen Endothelzellen in vitro und im Mäuseherzen in vivo. Hierbei handelt es sich um eine substanzspezifische Wirkung von Nebivolol, die NO-unabhängig verläuft und nicht über den b3-Adrenozeptor vermittelt wird. Teile der klinisch beobachteten protektiven Wirkungen von Nebivolol könnten auf eine erhöhte BDNF-Expression zurückgeführt werden.

Misregulation of the tumour suppressor gene CYLD drives hyperactivation of T cells leading to intestinal pathology

The tumour suppressor gene cyld is mutated in familial cylindromatosis, an autosomal-dominant condition that predisposes to multiple skin tumours. The deubiquitinase CYLD acts as a negative regulator of NF-κB signaling. To analyse the function of CYLD in vivo we used the CYLDex7/8 mice, which are characterized by loss of the full-length transcript and overexpression of a short splice variant of CYLD (sCYLD). In CYLDex7/8 mice the overexpression of sCYLD results in splenomegaly and lymphadenopathy. Additionally, the B cell population in spleen and lymph nodes is increased at the expense of T cells. Analysis of CYLDex7/8 T cells showed a significant reduction of CD4 single positive (SP) and CD8 SP T cells in the thymus and in the periphery. By investigating the impact of sCYLD in TCR signaling in thymocytes, we could demonstrate that sCYLD partially inhibited the activation of Zap70 and thereby negatively regulated TCR signaling. In vitro as well as in vivo we could show that CD4+ T cells displayed a hyperactive phenotype, proliferated to a better extent than WT cells and expressed high amounts of inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 and IL-17A. Western Blots of steady state thymocytes and peripheral CD4+ T cells were performed, showing that the noncanonical pathway was highly upregulated visualized by the expression levels of RelB and p100 leading to a hyperactive phenotype of CD4+ T cells. In order to investigate the contribution of sCYLD in positive and negative selection in the thymus in vivo, the HY-TCR transgene (HYtg) was crossed to CYLDex7/8 mice. The analysis of CYLDex7/8 HYtg males revealed an increase in CD4+CD8+ DP as well as in CD8+ SP thymocytes, suggesting a less pronounced negative selection in CYLD mutant mice compared to HYtg control mice. Interestingly, the impaired negative selection in the thymus was accompanied by a strong colitis phenotype at early ages (4 weeks). Since medullary TECs (mTECs) play an important role in the late stage of T cell development by negatively selecting autoreactive thymocytes, the levels of mTECs in the medullary compartment was investigated. Of note, low numbers of mTECs were observed, combined with decreased expression levels of the mTEC markers UEA-1, keratin-5, claudin-3 and claudin-4. The reduction of mTECs in the medullary compartment could explain the inflammatory phenotype of CD4+ T cells in CYLDex7/8 mice leading to the severe intestinal pathology observed in these mice. Taken together, these results show an important role of sCYLD in T cell development and function as well as in NF-кB signaling of T cells.

Mass spectrometric identification of Varicella-Zoster Virus (VZV) proteins recognized by human T cells

Primary varicella-zoster virus (VZV) infection during childhood leads to varicella commonly known as chickenpox. After primary infection has occurred VZV establishes latency in the host. During subsequent lifetime the virus can cause reactivated infection clinically known as herpes zoster or shingles. In immunodeficient patients’ dissemination of the virus can lead to life-threatening disease. Withdrawal of acyclovir drug prophylaxis puts allogeneic hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation (HSCT) patients at increased risk for herpes zoster as long as VZV-specific cellular immunity is impaired. Although an efficient live attenuated VZV vaccine for zoster prophylaxis exists, it is not approved in immunocompromised patients due to safety reasons. Knowledge of immunogenic VZV proteins would allow designing a noninfectious nonhazardous subunit vaccine suitable for patients with immunodeficiencies. The objective of this study was to identify T cell defined virus proteins of a VZV-infected Vero cell extract that we have recently described as a reliable antigen format for interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) enzyme-linked immunosorbent spot (ELISpot) assays (Distler et al. 2008). We first separated the VZV-infected/-uninfected Vero cell extracts by size filtration and reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). The collected fractions were screened for VZV reactivity with peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of VZV-seropositive healthy individuals in the sensitive IFN-γ ELISpot assay. Using this strategy, we successfully identified bioactive fractions that contained immunogenic VZV material. VZV immune reactivity was mediated by CD4+ memory T lymphocytes (T cells) of VZV-seropositive healthy individuals as demonstrated in experiments with HLA blockade antibodies and T cell subpopulations already published by Distler et al. We next analyzed the bioactive fractions with electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) techniques and identified the sequences of three VZV-derived proteins: glycoprotein E (gE); glycoprotein B (gB), and immediate early protein 62 (IE62). Complementary DNA of these identified proteins was used to generate in vitro transcribed RNA for effective expression in PBMCs by electroporation. We thereby established a reliable and convenient IFN-γ ELISPOT approach to screen PBMCs of healthy donors and HSCT patients for T cell reactivity to single full-length VZV proteins. Application in 10 VZV seropositive healthy donors demonstrated much stronger recognition of glycoproteins gE and gB compared to IE62. In addition, monitoring experiments with ex vivo PBMCs of 3 allo-HSCT patients detected strongly increased CD4+ T cell responses to gE and gB for several weeks to months after zoster onset, while IE62 reactivity remained moderate. Overall our results show for the first time that VZV glycoproteins gE and gB are major targets of the post-transplant anti-zoster CD4+ T cell response. The screening approach introduced herein may help to select VZV proteins recognized by memory CD4+ T cells for inclusion in a subunit vaccine, which can be safely used for zoster prophylaxis in immunocompromised HSCT patients.