Detailed analyses of mutations affecting structural formation of neuromuscular synapses in Drosophila melanogaster

The establishment of appropriate synapses between neurons and their target cells is an essential requirement for the formation of functional neuronal circuits. However, there is very little insight into the mechanisms underlying de novo formation of synapses and synaptic terminals. To identify novel genes involved in signalling or structural aspects of these processes I capitalised on possibilities provided by the model organism Drosophila. Thus, I contributed to a screen of a collection of third chromosomal mutations (Salzberg et al., 1997, Genetics 147, 1723ff.) selecting those mutant strains displaying structural defects of Drosophila neuromuscular junctions (NMJ). Carrying out genetic mapping experiments, I could assign 7 genes to interesting candidate mutations. All 7 mutations selected in this process cause size alterations of the embryonic NMJ, and one shows additional disturbances in the distribution of synaptic markers. 4 of these turned out to be transcription factors, not falling into the remit of this project. Only for one of these, the neuronal transcription factor Castor, I could show that its overgrown mutant NMJ phenotype is due to an increase in the number of motorneurons. The remaining genes encode a potential nitrophenylphosphatase, the translation initiation factor eIF4AIII, and a novel protein Waharan. Unfortunately, the nitophenylphosphatase gene was identified too late to carry out functional studies in the context of this project, but potential roles are discussed. eIF4AIII promotes NMJ size tempting to speculate that local translation at the NMJ is affected. I found that the synaptic scaffolding molecule Discs large (Dlg; orthologue of PSD95) is upregulated at eIF4AIII mutant NMJs. Targeted upregulation of Dlg can not mimic the eIF4AIII mutant phenotype, but dlg mutations suppress it. Therefore, Dlg function is required but not sufficient in this context. My findings are discussed in detail, pointing out future directions. The main focus of this work is the completely novel gene waharan (wah), an orthologue of the human gene KIAA1267 encoding a big brain protein of likewise unknown structure and function. My studies show that mutations or RNAi knock-down of wah cause NMJ overgrowth and reveal additional crucial roles in the patterning of wing imginal discs. RNAi studies suggest Wah to be required pre- and postsynaptically at NMJs and, consistently, wah is transcribed in the nervous system and muscles. Anti-Wah antisera were produced but could no longer be tested here, but preliminary studies with newly generated HA-targeted constructs suggest that Wah localises at NMJs and in neuronal nuclei. In silico analyses predict Wah to be structurally related to the Rad23-family of proteins, likely to target ubiquitinated proteins to the proteasome for degradation (Chen et al., 2002, Mol Cell Biol 22, 4902ff.) . In agreement with this prediction, poly-ubiquitinated proteins were found to accumulate in the absence of wah function, and wah-like mutant phenotypes were induced in NMJs and wing discs by knocking down proteasome function. My analysis further revealed that poly-ubiquitinated proteins are reduced in nuclei of wah mutant neurons and muscles, suggesting that Wah may play additional roles in ubiquitin-mediated nuclear import. Taken together, this study has uncovered a number of interesting candidate genes required for the de novo formation of Drosophila NMJs. 3 of these genes fell into the focus of this project. As discussed in detail, discovery of these genes and insights gained into their function have high potential to be translatable into vertebrate systems.

Boron determination in biological samples - Intercomparison of three analytical methods to assist development of a treatment protocol for neoplastic diseases of the liver with Boron Neutron Capture Therapy

Die Bor-Neuroneneinfang-Therapie (engl.: Boron Neutron Capture Therapy, BNCT) ist eine indirekte Strahlentherapie, welche durch die gezielte Freisetzung von dicht ionisierender Strahlung Tumorzellen zerstört. Die freigesetzten Ionen sind Spaltfragmente einer Kernreaktion, bei welcher das Isotop 10B ein niederenergetisches (thermisches) Neutron einfängt. Das 10B wird durch ein spezielles Borpräparat in den Tumorzellen angereichert, welches selbst nicht radioaktiv ist. rnAn der Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz wurde die Forschung für die Anwendung eines klinischen Behandlungsprotokolls durch zwei Heilversuche bei Patienten mit kolorektalen Lebermetastasen an der Universität Pavia, Italien, angeregt, bei denen die Leber außerhalb des Körpers in einem Forschungsreaktor bestrahlt wurde. Als erster Schritt wurde in Kooperation verschiedener universitärer Institute eine klinische Studie zur Bestimmung klinisch relevanter Parameter wie der Borverteilung in verschiedenen Geweben und dem pharmakokinetischen Aufnahmeverhalten des Borpräparates initiiert.rnDie Borkonzentration in den Gewebeproben wurde hinsichtlich ihrer räumlichen Verteilung in verschiedenen Zellarealen bestimmt, um mehr über das Aufnahmeverhalten der Zellen für das BPA im Hinblick auf ihre biologischen Charakteristika zu erfahren. Die Borbestimung wurde per Quantitative Neutron Capture Radiography, Prompt Gamma Activation Analysis und Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectroscopy parallel zur histologischen Analyse des Gewebes durchgeführt. Es war möglich zu zeigen, dass in Proben aus Tumorgewebe und aus tumorfreiem Gewebe mit unterschiedlichen morphologischen Eigenschaften eine sehr heterogene Borverteilung vorliegt. Die Ergebnisse der Blutproben werden für die Erstellung eines pharmakokinetischen Modells verwendet und sind in Übereinstimmung mit existierenden pharmakokinetische Modellen. Zusätzlich wurden die Methoden zur Borbestimmung über speziell hergestellte Referenzstandards untereinander verglichen. Dabei wurde eine gute Übereinstimmung der Ergebnisse festgestellt, ferner wurde für alle biologischen Proben Standardanalyseprotokolle erstellt.rnDie bisher erhaltenen Ergebnisse der klinischen Studie sind vielversprechend, lassen aber noch keine endgültigen Schlussfolgerungen hinsichtlich der Wirksamkeit von BNCT für maligne Lebererkrankungen zu. rn

Blood-CNS barriers in neurodegenerative diseases

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) and the blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) separate the brain and the spinal cord from the circulating blood and are important for the maintenance of the CNS homeostasis. They build a physical barrier thereby protecting the CNS from pathogens and toxic agents, and their disruption plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of several CNS disorders. In this thesis, the blood-CNS-barriers were studied via in vitro models in two case studies for neurodegenerative disorders, in particular Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). The first model evaluates treatment possibilities of AD using nanotechnology-based strategies. Since the toxic amyloid-β42 (Aβ42) peptide plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of AD, reduced generation or enhanced clearance of Aβ42 peptides are expected to modify the disease course in AD. Therefore, several Aβ42-lowering drugs like flurbiprofen had been tested in clinical trials, but most of them failed due to their low brain penetration. Here, flurbiprofen was embedded in polylactide (PLA) nanoparticles and its transport was examined in an in vitro BBB model. The embedding of flurbiprofen into the nanoparticles disguised its cytotoxic potential and enabled the administration of higher drug concentrations which resulted in a sufficient transport of the drug across an endothelial cell monolayer. These results demonstrate that non-permeable drugs can be transported efficiently via nanoparticles and that these nanotechnology-based strategies are a promising tool to generate novel therapeutic options for AD and other CNS diseases. rnThe focus of the second project was to investigate the impaired integrity of the BSCB in a mouse model for ALS. About 20% of all familial ALS cases are associated with missense mutations or small deletions in the gene that encodes Cu/Zn-superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1). To date, the molecular mechanisms resulting in ALS are still unknown, but there is evidence that the disruption of the BSCB is one of the primary pathological events. In both familial and sporadic ALS patients, loss of endothelial integrity and endothelial cell damage was observed, and studies with SOD1 transgenic mice demonstrated that the BSCB disruption was found prior to motor neuron degeneration and neurovascular inflammation. Thus, an in vitro model for ALS endothelial cells was generated which exhibited comparable integrity characteristics and tight junction (TJ) protein expression profiles as isolated primary endothelial cells of the BSCB of SOD1 transgenic mice. In this, an alteration of the βcat/AKT/FoxO1 pathway, which regulates the expression of the TJ protein claudin-5, could be observed. These data furthermore indicate that ALS is a neurovascular disease, and understanding of the primary events in ALS pathogenesis will hopefully provide ideas for the development of new therapeutic strategies. rn