Computational studies on the structure and stabilities of magnetic inter-metallic compounds

The purpose of this thesis is to further the understanding of the structural, electronic and magnetic properties of ternary inter-metallic compounds using density functional theory (DFT). Four main problems are addressed. First, a detailed analysis on the ternary Heusler compounds is made. It has long been known that many Heusler compounds ($X_2YZ$; $X$ and $Y$ transition elements, $Z$ main group element) exhibit interesting half-metallic and ferromagnetic properties. In order to understand these, the dependence of magnetic and electronic properties on the structural parameters, the type of exchange-correlation functional and electron-electron correlation was examined. It was found that almost all Co$_2YZ$ Heusler compounds exhibit half-metallic ferromagnetism. It is also observed that $X$ and $Y$ atoms mainly contribute to the total magnetic moment. The magnitude of the total magnetic moment is determined only indirectly by the nature of $Z$ atoms, and shows a trend consistent with Slater-Pauling behaviour in several classes of these compounds. In contrast to experiments, calculations give a non-integer value of the magnetic moment in certain Co$_2$-based Heusler compounds. To explain deviations of the calculated magnetic moment, the LDA+$U$ scheme was applied and it was found that the inclusion of electron-electron correlation beyond the LSDA and GGA is necessary to obtain theoretical description of some Heusler compounds that are half-metallic ferromagnets. The electronic structure and magnetic properties of substitutional series of the quaternary Heusler compound Co$_2$Mn$_{1-x}$Fe$_x$Si were investigated under LDA+$U$. The calculated band structure suggest that the most stable compound in a half-metallic state will occur at an intermediate Fe concentration. These calculated findings are qualitatively confirmed by experimental studies. Second, the effect of antisite disordering in the Co$_2$TiSn system was investigated theoretically as well as experimentally. Preservation of half-metallicity for Co$_2$TiSn was observed with moderate antisite disordering and experimental findings suggest that the Co and Ti antisites disorder amounts to approximately 10~% in the compound. Third, a systematic examination was carried out for band gaps and the nature (covalent or ionic) of bonding in semiconducting 8- and 18-electron or half-metallic ferromagnet half-Heusler compounds. It was found that the most appropriate description of these compounds from the viewpoint of electronic structures is one of a $YZ$ zinc blende lattice stuffed by the $X$ ion. Simple valence rules are obeyed for bonding in the 8- and 18-electron compounds. Fourth, hexagonal analogues of half-Heusler compounds have been searched. Three series of compounds were investigated: GdPdSb, GdAutextit{X} (textit{X} = Mn, Cd and In) and EuNiP. GdPdSb is suggested as a possible half-metallic weak ferromagnet at low temperature. GdAutextit{X} (textit{X} = Mn, Cd and In) and EuNiP were investigated because they exhibit interesting bonding, structural and magnetic properties. The results qualitatively confirm experimental studies on magnetic and structural behaviour in GdPdSb, GdAutextit{X} (textit{X} = Mn, Cd and In) and EuNiP compounds. ~

Spin polarised Heusler compounds

In der vorliegenden Dissertation dient ein einfaches Konzept zur Systematisierung der Suche nach neuen Materialien mit hoher Spinpolarisation. Dieses Konzept basiert auf zwei semi-empirischen Modellen. Zum einen kann die Slater-Pauling Regel zur Abschätzung magnetischer Momente verwendet werden. Dieses Modell wird dabei durch Rechnungen zur elektronischen Struktur unterstützt. Das zweites Modell kann insbesondere für die Co2YZ Heusler Verbindungen beim Vergleich ihrer magnetischen Eigenschaften gefunden werden. Für diese Verbindungen ergibt sich eine scheinbare lineare Abhängigkeit der Curie-Temperatur beim Auftragen als Funktion des magnetischen Momentes. Angeregt durch diese Modelle wurde die Heusler Verbindung Co2FeSi nochmals detailliert im Hinblick auf ihre geometrische und magnetische Struktur hin untersucht. Als Methoden dienten dabei die Pulver-Röntgenbeugung, die EXAFS Spektroskopie, Röntgen Absorptions- and Mößbauer Spektroskopie sowie Hoch- und Tieftemperatur Magnetometrie, XMCD and DSC. Die Messungen zeigten, dass es sich bei Co2FeSi um das Material mit dem höchsten magnetischen Moment (6 B) und der höchsten Curie Temperatur (1100 K) sowohl in der Klasse der Heusler Verbindungen als auch in der Klasse der halbmetallischen Ferromagnete handelt. Zusätzlich werden alle experimentellen Ergebnisse durch detaillierte Rechnungen zur elektronischen Struktur unterstützt. Die gleichen Konzepte wurden verwendet, um die Eigenschaften der Heusler Verbindung Co2Cr1-xFexAl vorherzusagen. Die elektronische Struktur und die spektroskopischen Eigenschaften wurden mit der voll-relativistischen Korringa-Kohn-Rostocker Methode berechnet, unter Verwendung kohärenter Potentialnäherungen um der zufälligen Verteilung von Cr und Fe Atomen sowie zufälliger Unordnung Rechnung zu tragen. Magnetische Effekte wurden durch die Verwendung Spin-abhängiger Potentiale im Rahmen der lokalen Spin-Dichte-Näherung mit eingeschlossen. Die strukturellen und chemischen Eigenschaften der quaternären Heusler Verbindung Co2Cr1-xFexAl wurden an Pulver und Bulkproben gemessen. Die Fernordnung wurde mit der Pulver Röntgenbeugung und Neutronenbeugung untersucht, während die Nahordnung mit der EXAFS Spektroskopie aufgeklärt wurde. Die magnetische Struktur von Pulver und Bulkproben wurde mitttels 57Fe-Mößbauer Spektroskopie gemessen. Die chemische Zusammensetzung wurde durch XPS analysiert. Die Ergebnisse dieser Methoden wurden verglichen, um eine Einsicht in die Unterschiede zwischen Oberflächen und Volumeneigenschaften zu erlangen sowie in das Auftreten von Fehlordnung in solchen Verbindungen. Zusätzlich wurde XMCD an den L3,2 Kanten von Co, Fe, and Cr gemessen, um die elementspezifischen magnetischen Momente zu bestimmen. Rechnungen und Messungen zeigen dabei eine Zunahme des magnetischen Momentes bei steigendem Fe-Anteil. Resonante Photoemission mit weicher Röntgenstrahlung sowie Hochenergie Photoemission mit harter Röntgenstrahlung wurden verwendet, um die Zustandsdichte der besetzten Zustände in Co2Cr0.6Fe0.4Al zu untersuchen. Diese Arbeit stellt außerdem eine weitere, neue Verbindung aus der Klasse der Heusler Verbindungen vor. Co2CrIn ist L21 geordnet, wie Messungen mittels Pulver Röntgenbeugung zeigen. Die magnetischen Eigenschaften wurden mit magnetometrisch bestimmt. Co2CrIn ist weichmagnetisch mit einer Sättigungsmagnetisierung von 1.2B bei 5 K. Im Gegensatz zu den bereits oben erwähnten Co2YZ Heusler Verbindungen ist Co2CrIn kein halbmetallischer Ferromagnet. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wird weiterhin eine Regel zur Vorhersage von halbmetallischen komplett kompensierten Ferrimagneten in der Klasse der Heusler Verbindungen vorgestellt. Dieses Konzept resultiert aus der Kombination der Slater-Pauling Regel mit der Kübler-Regel. Die Kübler Regel besagt, dass Mn auf der Y Position zu einem hoch lokalisierten magnetischen Moment tendiert. Unter Verwendung dieses neuen Konzeptes werden für einige Kandidaten in der Klasse der Heusler Verbindungen die Eigenschaft des halbmetallischen komplett kompensierten Ferrimagnetismus vorhergesagt. Die Anwendung dieses Konzeptes wird anhand von Rechnungen zur elektronischen Struktur bestätigt.

Structure and properties of intermetallic ternary rare earth compounds

The so called material science is an always growing field in modern research. For the development of new materials not only the experimental characterization but also theoretical calculation of the electronic structure plays an important role. A class of compounds that has attracted a great deal of attention in recent years is known as REME compounds. These compounds are often referred to with RE designating rare earth, actinide or an element from group 1 - 4, M representing a late transition metal from groups 8 - 12, and E belonging to groups 13 - 15. There are more than 2000 compounds with 1:1:1 stoichiometry belonging to this class of compounds and they offer a broad variety of different structure types. Although many REME compounds are know to exist, mainly only structure and magnetism has been determined for these compounds. In particular, in the field of electronic and transport properties relatively few efforts have been made. The main focus in this study is on compounds crystallizing in MgAgAs and LiGaGe structure. Both structures can only be found among 18 valence electron compounds. The f electrons are localized and therefor not count as valence electrons. A special focus here was also on the magnetoresistance effects and spintronic properties found among the REME compounds. An examination of the following compounds was made: GdAuE (E = In, Cd, Mg), GdPdSb, GdNiSb, REAuSn (RE = Gd, Er, Tm) and RENiBi (RE = Pr, Sm, Gd - Tm, Lu). The experimental results were compared with theoretic band structure calculations. The first half metallic ferromagnet with LiGaGe structure (GdPdSb) was found. All semiconducting REME compounds with MgAgAs structure show giant magnetoresistance (GMR) at low temperatures. The GMR is related to a metal-insulator transition, and the value of the GMR depends on the value of the spin-orbit coupling. Inhomogeneous DyNiBi samples show a small positive MR at low temperature that depends on the amount of metallic impurities. At higher fields the samples show a negative GMR. Inhomogeneous nonmagnetic LuNiBi samples show no negative GMR, but a large positive MR of 27.5% at room temperature, which is interesting for application.

Tunnelkontakte mit Heusler-Elektrode: Spinpolarisation von Co 2Cr 0,6Fe 0,4Al und Einfluss der Barriere

Ziel dieser Arbeit ist die Bestimmung der Spinpolarisation von der Heusler-Verbindung Co2Cr0,6Fe0,4Al. Dieses Ziel wurde durch die sorgfältige Präparation von Co2Cr0,6Fe0,4Al basierten Tunnelkontakten realisiert. Tunnelwiderstandsmessungen an Co2Cr0,6Fe0,4Al-basiertenrnTunnelkontakten ergaben einen Tunnelmagnetowiderstand von 101% bei 4 K. DieserrnTunnelmagnetowiderstand legt eine untere Grenze von 67% für die Spinpolarisation von Co2Cr0,6Fe0,4Al fest.rnrnCo2Cr0,6Fe0,4Al ist eine Heusler-Verbindung, der die Eigenschaften eines halbmetallischen Ferromagneten zugeschrieben werden. Ein halbmetallischer Ferromagnet hat an der Fermikante nur Elektronenspinzustände mit einer Polarisation. Als Folge davon können bei einem spinerhaltenden Tunnelprozess nur Elektronen einer Spinrichtung in den halbmetallischen Ferromagneten tunneln. Mit einem magnetischen Feld und einer durch einen Antiferromagneten fixierten Gegenelektrode, können an einem Tunnelkontakt mit einem spinpolarisierten Ferromagneten deshalb zwei Zustände, eine hohe und eine niedrige Tunnelleitfähigkeit, erzeugt werden. Daher finden spinpolarisierte Tunnelkontakte in Form von MRAM in der Datenspeicherung Verwendung. Bislang wurde jedoch keine Verbindung gefunden, der eine Spinpolarisation von 100% experimentell eindeutig nachgewiesen werden konnte. Für Co2Cr0,6Fe0,4Al lagen die höchsten gemessenen Spinpolarisationen um 50%.rnrnTunnelspektroskopie ist eine zuverlässige und anwendungsnahe Methode zur Untersuchung der Spinpolarisation. Inelastische Tunnelprozesse und eine reduzierte Ordnung an Grenzflächen bewirken einen reduzierten Tunnelmagnetowiderstand. Eine symmetriebrechende Barriere, wie amorphes AlOx, ist Voraussetzung für die Anwendung des Jullière-Modells zur Bestimmung der Spinpolarisation. Das Jullière-Modell verknüpft die Spin-aufgespaltenenrnZustandsdichten der Elektroden mit dem Tunnelmagnetowiderstand. Ohne einernsymmetriebrechende Barriere, zum Beispiel mit MgO als Isolatorschicht, können höhere Tunnelmagnetowiderstände erzwungen werden. Ein eindeutiger Rückschluss auf die Spinpolarisation ist dann jedoch nicht mehr möglich. Mit Aluminiumoxid-basierten Barrieren liefert die Anwendung des einfachen Jullière-Modells eine Untergrenze der Spinpolarisation.rnrnUm die Spinpolarisation von Co2Cr0,6Fe0,4Al durch Tunnelspektroskopie zu bestimmen, musste die Präparation der Tunnelkontakte verbessert werden. Dies wurde ermöglicht durch den Anbau einer neuen Sputterkammer mit besseren UHV-Bedingungen an ein bestehendes Präparationscluster. Co2Cr0,6Fe0,4Al wird mit Hilfe von Radiofrequenz-Kathodenzerstäuben deponiert. Die resultierenden Schichten verfügen nach ihrer Deposition über einen höheren Ordnungsgrad und über eine geordnete Oberfläche. Durch eine Magnesium-Pufferschicht war es möglich, auf diese Oberfläche eine homogene amorphe AlOx-Barriere zu deponieren. Als Gegenelektrode wurde CoFe als Ferromagnet mit MnFe als Antiferromagnet gewählt. Diese Gegenelektrode ermöglicht Tunnelmessungen bis hin zu Raumtemperatur.rnrnMit den in dieser Arbeit vorgestellten optimierten Analyse- und Präparationsmethoden ist es möglich, die Untergrenze der Spinpolarisation von Co2Cr0,6Fe0,4Al auf 67% anzuheben. Dies ist der bisher höchste veröffentlichte Wert der Spinpolarisation von Co2Cr0,6Fe0,4Al.rn

Hard x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy of bulk and thin films of Heusler compounds

X-ray photoemission spectroscopy (XPS) is one of the most universal and powerful tools for investigation of chemical states and electronic structures of materials. The application of hard x-rays increases the inelastic mean free path of the emitted electrons within the solid and thus makes hard x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (HAXPES) a bulk sensitive probe for solid state research and especially a very effective nondestructive technique to study buried layers.rnThis thesis focuses on the investigation of multilayer structures, used in magnetic tunnel junctions (MTJs), by a number of techniques applying HAXPES. MTJs are the most important components of novel nanoscale devices employed in spintronics. rnThe investigation and deep understanding of the mechanisms responsible for the high performance of such devices and properties of employed magnetic materials that are, in turn, defined by their electronic structure becomes feasible applying HAXPES. Thus the process of B diffusion in CoFeB-based MTJs was investigated with respect to the annealing temperature and its influence on the changes in the electronic structure of CoFeB electrodes that clarify the behaviour and huge TMR ratio values obtained in such devices. These results are presented in chapter 6. The results of investigation of the changes in the valence states of buried off-stoichiometric Co2MnSi electrodes were investigated with respect to the Mn content α and its influence on the observed TMR ratio are described in chapter 7.rnrnMagnetoelectronic properties such as exchange splitting in ferromagnetic materials as well as the macroscopic magnetic ordering can be studied by magnetic circular dichroism in photoemission (MCDAD). It is characterized by the appearance of an asymmetry in the photoemission spectra taken either from the magnetized sample with the reversal of the photon helicity or by reversal of magnetization direction of the sample when the photon helicity direction is fixed. Though recently it has been widely applied for the characterization of surfaces using low energy photons, the bulk properties have stayed inaccessible. Therefore in this work this method was integrated to HAXPES to provide an access to exploration of magnetic phenomena in the buried layers of the complex multilayer structures. Chapter 8 contains the results of the MCDAD measurements employing hard x-rays for exploration of magnetic properties of the common CoFe-based band-ferromagnets as well as half-metallic ferromagnet Co2FeAl-based MTJs.rnrnInasmuch as the magnetoresistive characteristics in spintronic devices are fully defined by the electron spins of ferromagnetic materials their direct measurements always attracted much attention but up to date have been limited by the surface sensitivity of the developed techniques. Chapter 9 presents the results on the successfully performed spin-resolved HAXPES experiment using a spin polarimeter of the SPLEED-type on a buried Co2FeAl0.5Si0.5 magnetic layer. The measurements prove that a spin polarization of about 50 % is retained during the transmission of the photoelectrons emitted from the Fe 2p3/2 state through a 3-nm-thick oxide capping layer.rn

Unconventional correlated systems

This work comprises three different types of unconventional correlated systems.rnChapters 3-5 of this work are about the open shell compounds Rb4O6 and Cs4O6. These mixed valent compounds contain oxygen in two different modifications: the closed-shell peroxide anion is nonmagnetic, whereas the hyperoxide anion contains an unpaired electrons in an antibonding pi*-orbital. Due to this electron magnetic ordering is rendered possible. In contrast to theoretical predictions, which suggested half-metallic ferromagnetism for Rb4O6,rndominating antiferromagnetic interactions were found in the experiment. Besidesrna symmetry reduction due to the mixed valency, strong electronic correlations of this highly molecular system determine its properties; it is a magnetically frustrated insulator. The corresponding Cs4O6 was found to show similar properties.rnChapters 6-9 of this work are about intermetallic Heusler superconductors. rnAll of these superconductors were rationally designed using the van Hove scenario as a working recipe. A saddle point in the energy dispersion curve of a solid leads to a van Hove singularity in the density of states. In the Ni-based and Pd-based Heusler superconductors presented in this work this sort of a valence instability occurs at the high-symmetry L point and coincides or nearly coincides with the Fermi level. The compounds escape the high density of states at the Fermi energy through a transition into the correlated superconducting state.rnChapter 10 of this work is about the tetragonally distorted ferrimagnetic DO22 phase of Mn3Ga. This hard-magnetic modification is technologically useful for spin torque transfer applications. The phase exhibits two different crystallographic sites that are occupied by Mn atoms and can thus be written as Mn2MnGa. The competition between the mainly itinerant moments of the Mn atoms at the Wyckoff position 4d and the localized moments of the Mn atoms at the Wyckoff position 2b leads to magnetic correlations. The antiferromagnetic orientation of these moments determines the compound to exhibit a resulting magnetic moment of approximately 1 µB per formula unit in a partially compensated ferrimagnetic configuration.

Electronic structure and physical properties of Heusler compounds for thermoelectric and spintronic applications

This thesis focuses on synthesis as well as investigations of the electronic structure and properties of Heusler compounds for spintronic and thermoelectric applications.rnThe first part reports on the electronic and crystal structure as well as the mechanical, magnetic, and transport properties of the polycrystalline Heusler compound Co2MnGe. The crystalline structure was examined in detail by extended X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy and anomalous X-ray diffraction. The low-temperature magnetic moment agrees well with the Slater-Pauling rule and indicates a half-metallic ferromagnetic state of the compound, as is predicted by ab-initio calculations. Transport measurements and hard X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (HAXPES) were performed to explain the electronic structure of the compound.rnA major part of the thesis deals with a systematical investigation of Heusler compounds for thermoelectric applications. Few studies have been reported on thermoelectric properties of p-type Heusler compounds. Therefore, this thesis focuses on the search for new p-type Heusler compounds with high thermoelectric efficiency. The substitutional series NiTi1−xMxSn and CoTi1−xMxSb (where M = Sc, V and 0 ≤ x ≤ 0.2) were synthesized and investigated theoretically and experimentally with respect to electronic structure and transport properties. The results show the possibility to create n-type and p-type thermoelectrics within one Heusler compound. The pure compounds showed n-type behavior, while under Sc substitution the system switched to p-type behavior. A maximum Seebeck coefficient of +230 μV/K (at 350 K) was obtained for NiTi0.26Sc0.04Zr0.35Hf0.35Sn, which is one of the highest values for p-type thermoelectric compounds based on Heusler alloys up to now. HAXPES valence band measurement show massive in gap states for the parent compounds NiTiSn, CoTiSb and NiTi0.3Zr0.35Hf0.35Sn. This proves that the electronic states close to the Fermi energy play a key role for the behavior of the transport properties. Furthermore, the electronic structure of the gapless Heusler compounds PtYSb, PtLaBi and PtLuSb were investigated by bulk sensitive HAXPES. The linear behavior of the spectra close to εF proves the bulk origin of Dirac-cone type density of states. Furthermore, a systematic study on the optical and transport properties of PtYSb is presented. The compound exhibits promising thermoelectric properties with a high figure of merit (ZT = 0.2) and a Hall mobility μh of 300 cm2/Vs at 350 K.rnThe last part of this thesis describes the linear dichroism in angular-resolved photoemission from the valence band of NiTi0.9Sc0.1Sn and NiMnSb. High resolution photoelectron spectroscopy was performed with an excitation energy of hν = 7.938 keV. The linear polarization of the photons was changed using an in-vacuum diamond phase retarder. Noticeable linear dichroism is found in the valence bands and this allows for a symmetry analysis of the contributing states. The differences in the spectra are found to be caused by symmetry dependent angular asymmetry parameters, and these occur even in polycrystalline samples without preferential crystallographic orientation.rnIn summary, Heusler compounds with 1:1:1 and 2:1:1 stoichiometry were synthesized and examined by chemical and physical methods. Overall, this thesis shows that the combination of first-principle calculations, transport measurements and high resolution high energy photoelectron spectroscopy analysis is a very powerful tool for the design and development of new materials for a wide range of applications from spintronic applications to thermoelectric applications.rn