Weathering of Fe-bearing minerals under extraterrestrial conditions, investigated by Mössbauer spectroscopy

The weathering of Fe-bearing minerals under extraterrestrial conditions was investigated by Mössbauer (MB) spectroscopy to gain insights into the role of water on the planet Mars. The NASA Mars Exploration Rovers Spirit and Opportunity each carry a miniaturized Mössbauer spectrometer MIMOS II for the in situ investigation of Martian soils and rocks as part of their payload. The MER flight instruments had to be modified in order to work over the Martian diurnal temperature range (180 K – 290 K) and within the unique electronic environment of the rovers. The modification required special calibration procedures. The integration time necessary to obtain a good quality Mössbauer spectrum with the MIMOS II flight instruments was reduced by 30 % through the design of a new collimator. The in situ investigation of rocks along the rover Spirit's traverse in Gusev crater revealed weakly altered olivine basalt on the plains and pervasively altered basalt in the Columbia Hills. Correlation plots of primary Fe-bearing minerals identified by MB spectroscopy such as olivine versus secondary Fe-bearing phases such as nanophase Fe oxides showed that olivine is the mineral which is primarily involved in weathering reactions. This argues for a reduced availability of water. Identification of the Fe-oxyhydroxide goethite in the Columbia Hills is unequivocal evidence for aqueous weathering processes in the Columbia Hills. Experiments in which mineral powders were exposed to components of the Martian atmosphere showed that interaction with the atmosphere alone, in the absence of liquid water, is sufficient to oxidize Martian surface materials. The fine-grained dust suspended in the Martian atmosphere may have been altered solely by gas-solid reactions. Fresh and altered specimens of Martian meteorites were investigated with MIMOS II. The study of Martian meteorites in the lab helped to identify in Bounce Rock the first rock on Mars which is similar in composition to basaltic shergottites, a subgroup of the Martian meteorites. The field of astrobiology includes the study of the origin, evolution and distribution of life in the universe. Water is a prerequisite for life. The MER Mössbauer spectrometers identified aqueous minerals such as jarosite and goethite. The identification of jarosite was crucial to evaluate the habitability of Opportunity's landing site at Meridiani Planum during the formation of the sedimentary outcrop rocks, because jarosite puts strong constrains on pH levels. The identification of olivine in rocks and soils on the Gusev crater plains provide evidence for the sparsity of water under current conditions on Mars. Ratios of Fe2+/Fe3+ were obtained with Mössbauer spectroscopy from basaltic glass samples which were exposed at a deep sea hydrothermal vent. The ratios were used as a measure of potential energy for use by a microbial community. Samples from Mars analogue field sites on Earth exhibiting morphological biosignatures were also investigated.

Bedeutung der viralen IE4-Region für die Genexpression und Replikation des humanen Cytomegalovirus

Das humane Cytomegalovirus (HCMV) ist ein fakultativ-pathogener Erreger, der bei Patienten mit geschwächter oder unausgereifter Immunabwehr schwerwiegende Erkrankungen hervorrufen kann. Wie alle Herpesviren zeigt das HCMV eine streng koordinierte Expression viraler Gene, die in eine „sehr frühe-“ (IE), „frühe “ (E) und „späte-“ (L) Phase unterteilt werden kann. Die Produkte der IE-Gene IE1 und IE2 sind für die Expression der frühen Gene und somit für die Initiation der viralen DNA-Replikation entscheidend. Sie greifen gleichzeitig in den zellulären Stoffwechsel ein und schaffen damit optimale Vorraussetzungen für die virale Vermehrung. Zu Beginn dieser Arbeit war bekannt, dass HCMV in lytisch infizierten Zellen ein abundantes IE-Transkript von 5 kb (IE4-RNA) exprimierte, dessen Funktion bislang unklar war. Ältere Publikationen deuteten darauf hin, dass die IE4-Genregion an der Transformation eukaryonter Zellen beteiligt sein könnte. Neuere Arbeiten zeigten, dass es sich bei diesem IE4-Transkript um ein metabolisch stabiles Intron handelt. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit sollte zunächst geklärt werden, ob die IE4-Genregion ein Protein kodiert. In der Folge sollten mit viralen Deletionsmutanten Hinweise auf die biologische Funktion des IE4-Bereichs erarbeitet werden. Durch Northern Blot Analysen und cDNA-Klonierungsexperimente konnte eine Reihe neuer Spleiß-Varianten der IE4-RNA identifiziert werden. Durch Sequenzanalysen wurde gezeigt, dass diese Transkripte keine längeren offenen Leserahmen enthalten. Zusammen mit bereits publizierten Erkenntnissen, kann aus diesen Ergebnissen mit hoher Wahrscheinlichkeit geschlossen werden, dass die IE4 Region nicht für ein Protein kodiert. Zur Analyse der biologischen Funktion der IE4-Region wurde das DNA-Genom des HCMV gezielt mutagenisiert. Eine phänotypische Analyse der entsprechenden Viren mittels Reportergen-Tests und quantitativer RealTime RT-PCR zeigte, dass einige der Mutanten eine verringerte Expression früher Gene aufwiesen, die mit einer Beeinträchtigung ihrer Replikationsfähigkeit in Fibroblastenkulturen korrelierte. Dabei war die Ausbildung eines Phänotyps jedoch von dem genetischen Hintergrund des verwendeten viralen Ausgangsstammes abhängig. Auffällig war, dass phänotypische Veränderungen nur bei solchen Mutanten sichtbar wurden, die auf der Grundlage des Laborstammes Ad169 des HCMV generiert worden waren. Die nachfolgende Analyse der Ausgangsstämme ergab deutliche Unterschiede in der IE-Genexpression. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit zeigen somit, dass die IE4-RNA mit hoher Wahrscheinlichkeit nicht für ein Protein kodiert, aber bei limitierender Expression der essentiellen Regulatoren IE1 und IE2 die frühe lytische Genexpression stimuliert. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit stellen die Grundlage für nachfolgende Untersuchungen zur Aufklärung der molekularen Funktion der IE4-RNA im Rahmen der lytischen Infektion des HCMV dar.

Exchange of nitrogen dioxide (NO 2) between plants and the atmosphere under laboratory and field conditions

Nitrogen is an essential nutrient. It is for human, animal and plants a constituent element of proteins and nucleic acids. Although the majority of the Earth’s atmosphere consists of elemental nitrogen (N2, 78 %) only a few microorganisms can use it directly. To be useful for higher plants and animals elemental nitrogen must be converted to a reactive oxidized form. This conversion happens within the nitrogen cycle by free-living microorganisms, symbiotic living Rhizobium bacteria or by lightning. Humans are able to synthesize reactive nitrogen through the Haber-Bosch process since the beginning of the 20th century. As a result food security of the world population could be improved noticeably. On the other side the increased nitrogen input results in acidification and eutrophication of ecosystems and in loss of biodiversity. Negative health effects arose for humans such as fine particulate matter and summer smog. Furthermore, reactive nitrogen plays a decisive role at atmospheric chemistry and global cycles of pollutants and nutritive substances.rnNitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) belong to the reactive trace gases and are grouped under the generic term NOx. They are important components of atmospheric oxidative processes and influence the lifetime of various less reactive greenhouse gases. NO and NO2 are generated amongst others at combustion process by oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen as well as by biological processes within soil. In atmosphere NO is converted very quickly into NO2. NO2 is than oxidized to nitrate (NO3-) and to nitric acid (HNO3), which bounds to aerosol particles. The bounded nitrate is finally washed out from atmosphere by dry and wet deposition. Catalytic reactions of NOx are an important part of atmospheric chemistry forming or decomposing tropospheric ozone (O3). In atmosphere NO, NO2 and O3 are in photosta¬tionary equilibrium, therefore it is referred as NO-NO2-O3 triad. At regions with elevated NO concentrations reactions with air pollutions can form NO2, altering equilibrium of ozone formation.rnThe essential nutrient nitrogen is taken up by plants mainly by dissolved NO3- entering the roots. Atmospheric nitrogen is oxidized to NO3- within soil via bacteria by nitrogen fixation or ammonium formation and nitrification. Additionally atmospheric NO2 uptake occurs directly by stomata. Inside the apoplast NO2 is disproportionated to nitrate and nitrite (NO2-), which can enter the plant metabolic processes. The enzymes nitrate and nitrite reductase convert nitrate and nitrite to ammonium (NH4+). NO2 gas exchange is controlled by pressure gradients inside the leaves, the stomatal aperture and leaf resistances. Plant stomatal regulation is affected by climate factors like light intensity, temperature and water vapor pressure deficit. rnThis thesis wants to contribute to the comprehension of the effects of vegetation in the atmospheric NO2 cycle and to discuss the NO2 compensation point concentration (mcomp,NO2). Therefore, NO2 exchange between the atmosphere and spruce (Picea abies) on leaf level was detected by a dynamic plant chamber system under labo¬ratory and field conditions. Measurements took place during the EGER project (June-July 2008). Additionally NO2 data collected during the ECHO project (July 2003) on oak (Quercus robur) were analyzed. The used measuring system allowed simultaneously determina¬tion of NO, NO2, O3, CO2 and H2O exchange rates. Calculations of NO, NO2 and O3 fluxes based on generally small differences (∆mi) measured between inlet and outlet of the chamber. Consequently a high accuracy and specificity of the analyzer is necessary. To achieve these requirements a highly specific NO/NO2 analyzer was used and the whole measurement system was optimized to an enduring measurement precision.rnData analysis resulted in a significant mcomp,NO2 only if statistical significance of ∆mi was detected. Consequently, significance of ∆mi was used as a data quality criterion. Photo-chemical reactions of the NO-NO2-O3 triad in the dynamic plant chamber’s volume must be considered for the determination of NO, NO2, O3 exchange rates, other¬wise deposition velocity (vdep,NO2) and mcomp,NO2 will be overestimated. No significant mcomp,NO2 for spruce could be determined under laboratory conditions, but under field conditions mcomp,NO2 could be identified between 0.17 and 0.65 ppb and vdep,NO2 between 0.07 and 0.42 mm s-1. Analyzing field data of oak, no NO2 compensation point concentration could be determined, vdep,NO2 ranged between 0.6 and 2.71 mm s-1. There is increasing indication that forests are mainly a sink for NO2 and potential NO2 emissions are low. Only when assuming high NO soil emissions, more NO2 can be formed by reaction with O3 than plants are able to take up. Under these circumstance forests can be a source for NO2.