High resolution study of local stress inside alumina - micro mechanical analysis using laser scanning confocal microscope

The aim of this work is to measure the stress inside a hard micro object under extreme compression. To measure the internal stress, we compressed ruby spheres (a-Al2O3: Cr3+, 150 µm diameter) between two sapphire plates. Ruby fluorescence spectrum shifts to longer wavelengths under compression and can be related to the internal stress by a conversion coefficient. A confocal laser scanning microscope was used to excite and collect fluorescence at desired local spots inside the ruby sphere with spatial resolution of about 1 µm3. Under static external loads, the stress distribution within the center plane of the ruby sphere was measured directly for the first time. The result agreed to Hertz’s law. The stress across the contact area showed a hemispherical profile. The measured contact radius was in accord with the calculation by Hertz’s equation. Stress-load curves showed spike-like decrease after entering non-elastic phase, indicating the formation and coalescence of microcracks, which led to relaxing of stress. In the vicinity of the contact area luminescence spectra with multiple peaks were observed. This indicated the presence of domains of different stress, which were mechanically decoupled. Repeated loading cycles were applied to study the fatigue of ruby at the contact region. Progressive fatigue was observed when the load exceeded 1 N. As long as the load did not exceed 2 N stress-load curves were still continuous and could be described by Hertz’s law with a reduced Young’s modulus. Once the load exceeded 2 N, periodical spike-like decreases of the stress could be observed, implying a “memory effect” under repeated loading cycles. Vibration loading with higher frequencies was applied by a piezo. Redistributions of intensity on the fluorescence spectra were observed and it was attributed to the repopulation of the micro domains of different elasticity. Two stages of under vibration loading were suggested. In the first stage continuous damage carried on until certain limit, by which the second stage, e.g. breakage, followed in a discontinuous manner.

High-resolution reconstruction of Holocene climate variability and environmental changes in the North Pacific using bivalve shells

Bivalve mollusk shells are useful tools for multi-species and multi-proxy paleoenvironmental reconstructions with a high temporal and spatial resolution. Past environmental conditions can be reconstructed from shell growth and stable oxygen and carbon isotope ratios, which present an archive for temperature, freshwater fluxes and primary productivity. The purpose of this thesis is the reconstruction of Holocene climate and environmental variations in the North Pacific with a high spatial and temporal resolution using marine bivalve shells. This thesis focuses on several different Holocene time periods and multiple regions in the North Pacific, including: Japan, Alaska (AK), British Columbia (BC) and Washington State, which are affected by the monsoon, Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) and El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Such high-resolution proxy data from the marine realm of mid- and high-latitudes are still rare. Therefore, this study contributes to the optimization and verification of climate models. However, before using bivalves for environmental reconstructions and seasonality studies, life history traits must be well studied to temporally align and interpret the geochemical record. These calibration studies are essential to ascertain the usefulness of selected bivalve species as paleoclimate proxy archives. This work focuses on two bivalve species, the short-lived Saxidomus gigantea and the long-lived Panopea abrupta. Sclerochronology and oxygen isotope ratios of different shell layers of P. abrupta were studied in order to test the reliability of this species as a climate archive. The annual increments are clearly discernable in umbonal shell portions and the increments widths should be measured in these shell portions. A reliable reconstruction of paleotemperatures may only be achieved by exclusively sampling the outer shell layer of multiple contemporaneous specimens. Life history traits (e.g., timing of growth line formation, duration of the growing season and growth rates) and stable isotope ratios of recent S. gigantea from AK and BC were analyzed in detail. Furthermore, a growth-temperature model based on S. gigantea shells from Alaska was established, which provides a better understanding of the hydrological changes related to the Alaska Coastal Current (ACC). This approach allows the independent measurement of water temperature and salinity from variations in the width of lunar daily growth increments of S. gigantea. Temperature explains 70% of the variability in shell growth. The model was calibrated and tested with modern shells and then applied to archaeological specimens. The time period between 988 and 1447 cal yrs BP was characterized by colder (~1-2°C) and much drier (2-5 PSU) summers, and a likely much slower flowing ACC than at present. In contrast, the summers during the time interval of 599-1014 cal yrs BP were colder (up to 3°C) and fresher (1-2 PSU) than today. The Aleutian Low may have been stronger and the ACC was probably flowing faster during this time.

Palaeo wind system reconstruction of the last glacial period over Europe, using high resolution proxy data and model-data-comparison

The atmosphere is a global influence on the movement of heat and humidity between the continents, and thus significantly affects climate variability. Information about atmospheric circulation are of major importance for the understanding of different climatic conditions. Dust deposits from maar lakes and dry maars from the Eifel Volcanic Field (Germany) are therefore used as proxy data for the reconstruction of past aeolian dynamics.rnrnIn this thesis past two sediment cores from the Eifel region are examined: the core SM3 from Lake Schalkenmehren and the core DE3 from the Dehner dry maar. Both cores contain the tephra of the Laacher See eruption, which is dated to 12,900 before present. Taken together the cores cover the last 60,000 years: SM3 the Holocene and DE3 the marine isotope stages MIS-3 and MIS-2, respectively. The frequencies of glacial dust storm events and their paleo wind direction are detected by high resolution grain size and provenance analysis of the lake sediments. Therefore two different methods are applied: geochemical measurements of the sediment using µXRF-scanning and the particle analysis method RADIUS (rapid particle analysis of digital images by ultra-high-resolution scanning of thin sections).rnIt is shown that single dust layers in the lake sediment are characterized by an increased content of aeolian transported carbonate particles. The limestone-bearing Eifel-North-South zone is the most likely source for the carbonate rich aeolian dust in the lake sediments of the Dehner dry maar. The dry maar is located on the western side of the Eifel-North-South zone. Thus, carbonate rich aeolian sediment is most likely to be transported towards the Dehner dry maar within easterly winds. A methodology is developed which limits the detection to the aeolian transported carbonate particles in the sediment, the RADIUS-carbonate module.rnrnIn summary, during the marine isotope stage MIS-3 the storm frequency and the east wind frequency are both increased in comparison to MIS-2. These results leads to the suggestion that atmospheric circulation was affected by more turbulent conditions during MIS-3 in comparison to the more stable atmospheric circulation during the full glacial conditions of MIS-2.rnThe results of the investigations of the dust records are finally evaluated in relation a study of atmospheric general circulation models for a comprehensive interpretation. Here, AGCM experiments (ECHAM3 and ECHAM4) with different prescribed SST patterns are used to develop a synoptic interpretation of long-persisting east wind conditions and of east wind storm events, which are suggested to lead to an enhanced accumulation of sediment being transported by easterly winds to the proxy site of the Dehner dry maar.rnrnThe basic observations made on the proxy record are also illustrated in the 10 m-wind vectors in the different model experiments under glacial conditions with different prescribed sea surface temperature patterns. Furthermore, the analysis of long-persisting east wind conditions in the AGCM data shows a stronger seasonality under glacial conditions: all the different experiments are characterized by an increase of the relative importance of the LEWIC during spring and summer. The different glacial experiments consistently show a shift from a long-lasting high over the Baltic Sea towards the NW, directly above the Scandinavian Ice Sheet, together with contemporary enhanced westerly circulation over the North Atlantic.rnrnThis thesis is a comprehensive analysis of atmospheric circulation patterns during the last glacial period. It has been possible to reconstruct important elements of the glacial paleo climate in Central Europe. While the proxy data from sediment cores lead to a binary signal of the wind direction changes (east versus west wind), a synoptic interpretation using atmospheric circulation models is successful. This shows a possible distribution of high and low pressure areas and thus the direction and strength of wind fields which have the capacity to transport dust. In conclusion, the combination of numerical models, to enhance understanding of processes in the climate system, with proxy data from the environmental record is the key to a comprehensive approach to paleo climatic reconstruction.rn

Etablierung eines high content imaging-basierten in vitro Testsystems zur Evaluierung genotoxischer Substanzen

Zur Registrierung von Pharmazeutika ist eine umfassende Analyse ihres genotoxischen Potentials von Nöten. Aufgrund der Vielzahl genotoxischer Mechanismen und deren resultierenden Schäden wird ein gestaffeltes Testdesign durch die ICH-Richtlinie S2(R1) „Guidance on genotoxicity testing and data interpretation for pharmaceuticals intended for human use S2(R1)“ definiert, um alle genotoxischen Substanzen zu identifizieren. Die Standardtestbatterie ist in der frühen Phase der Arzneimittelentwicklung aufgrund des geringen Durchsatzes und des Mangels an verfügbarer Substanzmenge vermindert anwendbar. Darüber hinaus verfügen in vitro Genotoxizitätstests in Säugerzellen über eine relativ geringe Spezifität. Für eine vollständige Sicherheitsbeurteilung wird eine in vivo Testung auf Kanzerogenität benötigt. Allerdings sind diese Testsysteme kosten- und zeitintensiv. Aufgrund dessen zielen neue Forschungsansätze auf die Verbesserung der Prädiktivität und die Erfassung des genotoxischen Potentials bereits in der frühen Phase der Arzneimittelentwicklung ab. Die high content imaging (HCI)-Technologie offeriert einen Ansatz zur Verbesserung des Durchsatzes verglichen mit der Standardtestbatterie. Zusätzlich hat ein Zell-basiertes Modell den Vorteil Daten relativ schnell bei gleichzeitig geringem Bedarf an Substanzmenge zu generieren. Demzufolge ermöglichen HCI-basierte Testsysteme eine Prüfung in der frühen Phase der pharmazeutischen Arzneimittelentwicklung. Das Ziel dieser Studie ist die Entwicklung eines neuen, spezifischen und sensitiven HCI-basierten Testsytems für Genotoxine und Progenotoxine in vitro unter Verwendung von HepG2-Zellen gewesen. Aufgrund ihrer begrenzten metabolischen Kapazität wurde ein kombiniertes System bestehend aus HepG2-Zellen und einem metabolischen Aktivierungssystem zur Testung progenotoxischer Substanzen etabliert. Basierend auf einer vorherigen Genomexpressionsprofilierung (Boehme et al., 2011) und einer Literaturrecherche wurden die folgenden neun unterschiedlichen Proteine der DNA-Schadensantwort als putative Marker der Substanz-induzierten Genotoxizität ausgewählt: p-p53 (Ser15), p21, p-H2AX (Ser139), p-Chk1 (Ser345) p-ATM (Ser1981), p-ATR (Ser428), p-CDC2 (Thr14/Tyr15), GADD45A und p-Chk2 (Thr68). Die Expression bzw. Aktivierung dieser Proteine wurde 48 h nach Behandlung mit den (pro-) genotoxischen Substanzen (Cyclophosphamid, 7,12-Dimethylbenz[a]anthracen, Aflatoxin B1, 2-Acetylaminofluoren, Methylmethansulfonat, Actinomycin D, Etoposid) und den nicht-genotoxischen Substanzen (D-Mannitol, Phenforminhydrochlorid, Progesteron) unter Verwendung der HCI-Technologie ermittelt. Die beste Klassifizierung wurde bei Verwendung der folgenden fünf der ursprünglichen neun putativen Markerproteine erreicht: p-p53 (Ser15), p21, p-H2AX (Ser139), p-Chk1 (Ser345) und p-ATM (Ser1981). In einem zweiten Teil dieser Arbeit wurden die fünf ausgewählten Proteine mit Substanzen, welche von dem European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) zur Beurteilung der Leistung neuer oder modifizierter in vitro Genotoxizitätstests empfohlen sind, getestet. Dieses neue Testsystem erzielte eine Sensitivität von 80 % und eine Spezifität von 86 %, was in einer Prädiktivität von 84 % resultierte. Der synergetische Effekt dieser fünf Proteine ermöglicht die Identifizierung von genotoxischen Substanzen, welche DNA-Schädigungen durch eine Vielzahl von unterschiedlichen Mechanismen induzieren, mit einem hohen Erfolg. Zusammenfassend konnte ein hochprädiktives Prüfungssystem mit metabolischer Aktivierung für ein breites Spektrum potenziell genotoxischer Substanzen generiert werden, welches sich aufgrund des hohen Durchsatzes, des geringen Zeitaufwandes und der geringen Menge benötigter Substanz zur Substanzpriorisierung und -selektion in der Phase der Leitstrukturoptimierung eignet und darüber hinaus mechanistische Hinweise auf die genotoxische Wirkung der Testsubstanz liefert.

Field-free control of magnetism in nanostructured materials probed with high resolution X-ray microscopy

Magnetic memories are a backbone of today's digital data storage technology, where the digital information is stored as the magnetic configuration of nanostructured ferromagnetic bits. Currently, the writing of the digital information on the magnetic memory is carried out with the help of magnetic fields. This approach, while viable, is not optimal due to its intrinsically high energy consumption and relatively poor scalability. For this reason, the research for different mechanisms that can be used to manipulate the magnetic configuration of a material is of interest. In this thesis, the control of the magnetization of different nanostructured materials with field-free mechanisms is investigated. The magnetic configuration of these nanostructured materials was imaged directly with high resolution x-ray magnetic microscopy. rnFirst of all, the control of the magnetic configuration of nanostructured ferromagnetic Heusler compounds by fabricating nanostructures with different geometries was analyzed. Here, it was observed that the magnetic configuration of the nanostructured elements is given by the competition of magneto-crystalline and shape anisotropy. By fabricating elements with different geometries, we could alter the point where these two effects equilibrate, allowing for the possibility to tailor the magnetic configuration of these nanostructured elements to the required necessities.rnThen, the control of the magnetic configuration of Ni nanostructures fabricated on top of a piezoelectric material with the magneto-elastic effect (i.e. by applying a piezoelectric strain to the Ni nanostructures) was investigated. Here, the magneto-elastic coupling effect gives rise to an additional anisotropy contribution, proportional to the strain applied to the magnetic material. For this system, a reproducible and reversible control of the magnetic configuration of the nanostructured Ni elements with the application of an electric field across the piezoelectric material was achieved.rnFinally, the control of the magnetic configuration of La0.7Sr0.3MnO3 (LSMO) nanostructures with spin-polarized currents was studied. Here, the spin-transfer torque effect was employed to achieve the displacement of magnetic domain walls in the LSMO nanostructures. A high spin-transfer torque efficiency was observed for LSMO at low temperatures, and a Joule-heating induced hopping of the magnetic domain walls was observed at room temperatures, allowing for the analysis of the energetics of the domain walls in LSMO.rnThe results presented in this thesis give thus an overview on the different field-free approaches that can be used to manipulate and tailor the magnetization configuration of a nanostructured material to the various technological requirements, opening up novel interesting possibilities for these materials.

A new information fusion method for land-use classification using high resolution satellite imagery

Satellite image classification involves designing and developing efficient image classifiers. With satellite image data and image analysis methods multiplying rapidly, selecting the right mix of data sources and data analysis approaches has become critical to the generation of quality land-use maps. In this study, a new postprocessing information fusion algorithm for the extraction and representation of land-use information based on high-resolution satellite imagery is presented. This approach can produce land-use maps with sharp interregional boundaries and homogeneous regions. The proposed approach is conducted in five steps. First, a GIS layer - ATKIS data - was used to generate two coarse homogeneous regions, i.e. urban and rural areas. Second, a thematic (class) map was generated by use of a hybrid spectral classifier combining Gaussian Maximum Likelihood algorithm (GML) and ISODATA classifier. Third, a probabilistic relaxation algorithm was performed on the thematic map, resulting in a smoothed thematic map. Fourth, edge detection and edge thinning techniques were used to generate a contour map with pixel-width interclass boundaries. Fifth, the contour map was superimposed on the thematic map by use of a region-growing algorithm with the contour map and the smoothed thematic map as two constraints. For the operation of the proposed method, a software package is developed using programming language C. This software package comprises the GML algorithm, a probabilistic relaxation algorithm, TBL edge detector, an edge thresholding algorithm, a fast parallel thinning algorithm, and a region-growing information fusion algorithm. The county of Landau of the State Rheinland-Pfalz, Germany was selected as a test site. The high-resolution IRS-1C imagery was used as the principal input data.