Theoretical studies of fluid membrane mechanics

Biologische Membranen sind Fettmolekül-Doppelschichten, die sich wie zweidimensionale Flüssigkeiten verhalten. Die Energie einer solchen fluiden Oberfläche kann häufig mit Hilfe eines Hamiltonians beschrieben werden, der invariant unter Reparametrisierungen der Oberfläche ist und nur von ihrer Geometrie abhängt. Beiträge innerer Freiheitsgrade und der Umgebung können in den Formalismus mit einbezogen werden. Dieser Ansatz wird in der vorliegenden Arbeit dazu verwendet, die Mechanik fluider Membranen und ähnlicher Oberflächen zu untersuchen. Spannungen und Drehmomente in der Oberfläche lassen sich durch kovariante Tensoren ausdrücken. Diese können dann z. B. dazu verwendet werden, die Gleichgewichtsposition der Kontaktlinie zu bestimmen, an der sich zwei aneinander haftende Oberflächen voneinander trennen. Mit Ausnahme von Kapillarphänomenen ist die Oberflächenenergie nicht nur abhängig von Translationen der Kontaktlinie, sondern auch von Änderungen in der Steigung oder sogar Krümmung. Die sich ergebenden Randbedingungen entsprechen den Gleichgewichtsbedingungen an Kräfte und Drehmomente, falls sich die Kontaktlinie frei bewegen kann. Wenn eine der Oberflächen starr ist, muss die Variation lokal dieser Fläche folgen. Spannungen und Drehmomente tragen dann zu einer einzigen Gleichgewichtsbedingung bei; ihre Beiträge können nicht mehr einzeln identifiziert werden. Um quantitative Aussagen über das Verhalten einer fluiden Oberfläche zu machen, müssen ihre elastischen Eigenschaften bekannt sein. Der "Nanotrommel"-Versuchsaufbau ermöglicht es, Membraneigenschaften lokal zu untersuchen: Er besteht aus einer porenüberspannenden Membran, die während des Experiments durch die Spitze eines Rasterkraftmikroskops in die Pore gedrückt wird. Der lineare Verlauf der resultierenden Kraft-Abstands-Kurven kann mit Hilfe der in dieser Arbeit entwickelten Theorie reproduziert werden, wenn der Einfluss von Adhäsion zwischen Spitze und Membran vernachlässigt wird. Bezieht man diesen Effekt in die Rechnungen mit ein, ändert sich das Resultat erheblich: Kraft-Abstands-Kurven sind nicht länger linear, Hysterese und nichtverschwindende Trennkräfte treten auf. Die Voraussagen der Rechnungen könnten in zukünftigen Experimenten dazu verwendet werden, Parameter wie die Biegesteifigkeit der Membran mit einer Auflösung im Nanometerbereich zu bestimmen. Wenn die Materialeigenschaften bekannt sind, können Probleme der Membranmechanik genauer betrachtet werden. Oberflächenvermittelte Wechselwirkungen sind in diesem Zusammenhang ein interessantes Beispiel. Mit Hilfe des oben erwähnten Spannungstensors können analytische Ausdrücke für die krümmungsvermittelte Kraft zwischen zwei Teilchen, die z. B. Proteine repräsentieren, hergeleitet werden. Zusätzlich wird das Gleichgewicht der Kräfte und Drehmomente genutzt, um mehrere Bedingungen an die Geometrie der Membran abzuleiten. Für den Fall zweier unendlich langer Zylinder auf der Membran werden diese Bedingungen zusammen mit Profilberechnungen kombiniert, um quantitative Aussagen über die Wechselwirkung zu treffen. Theorie und Experiment stoßen an ihre Grenzen, wenn es darum geht, die Relevanz von krümmungsvermittelten Wechselwirkungen in der biologischen Zelle korrekt zu beurteilen. In einem solchen Fall bieten Computersimulationen einen alternativen Ansatz: Die hier präsentierten Simulationen sagen voraus, dass Proteine zusammenfinden und Membranbläschen (Vesikel) bilden können, sobald jedes der Proteine eine Mindestkrümmung in der Membran induziert. Der Radius der Vesikel hängt dabei stark von der lokal aufgeprägten Krümmung ab. Das Resultat der Simulationen wird in dieser Arbeit durch ein approximatives theoretisches Modell qualitativ bestätigt.

The swelling behaviour of polyelectrolyte networks

Being basic ingredients of numerous daily-life products with significant industrial importance as well as basic building blocks for biomaterials, charged hydrogels continue to pose a series of unanswered challenges for scientists even after decades of practical applications and intensive research efforts. Despite a rather simple internal structure it is mainly the unique combination of short- and long-range forces which render scientific investigations of their characteristic properties to be quite difficult. Hence early on computer simulations were used to link analytical theory and empirical experiments, bridging the gap between the simplifying assumptions of the models and the complexity of real world measurements. Due to the immense numerical effort, even for high performance supercomputers, system sizes and time scales were rather restricted until recently, whereas it only now has become possible to also simulate a network of charged macromolecules. This is the topic of the presented thesis which investigates one of the fundamental and at the same time highly fascinating phenomenon of polymer research: The swelling behaviour of polyelectrolyte networks. For this an extensible simulation package for the research on soft matter systems, ESPResSo for short, was created which puts a particular emphasis on mesoscopic bead-spring-models of complex systems. Highly efficient algorithms and a consistent parallelization reduced the necessary computation time for solving equations of motion even in case of long-ranged electrostatics and large number of particles, allowing to tackle even expensive calculations and applications. Nevertheless, the program has a modular and simple structure, enabling a continuous process of adding new potentials, interactions, degrees of freedom, ensembles, and integrators, while staying easily accessible for newcomers due to a Tcl-script steering level controlling the C-implemented simulation core. Numerous analysis routines provide means to investigate system properties and observables on-the-fly. Even though analytical theories agreed on the modeling of networks in the past years, our numerical MD-simulations show that even in case of simple model systems fundamental theoretical assumptions no longer apply except for a small parameter regime, prohibiting correct predictions of observables. Applying a "microscopic" analysis of the isolated contributions of individual system components, one of the particular strengths of computer simulations, it was then possible to describe the behaviour of charged polymer networks at swelling equilibrium in good solvent and close to the Theta-point by introducing appropriate model modifications. This became possible by enhancing known simple scaling arguments with components deemed crucial in our detailed study, through which a generalized model could be constructed. Herewith an agreement of the final system volume of swollen polyelectrolyte gels with results of computer simulations could be shown successfully over the entire investigated range of parameters, for different network sizes, charge fractions, and interaction strengths. In addition, the "cell under tension" was presented as a self-regulating approach for predicting the amount of swelling based on the used system parameters only. Without the need for measured observables as input, minimizing the free energy alone already allows to determine the the equilibrium behaviour. In poor solvent the shape of the network chains changes considerably, as now their hydrophobicity counteracts the repulsion of like-wise charged monomers and pursues collapsing the polyelectrolytes. Depending on the chosen parameters a fragile balance emerges, giving rise to fascinating geometrical structures such as the so-called pear-necklaces. This behaviour, known from single chain polyelectrolytes under similar environmental conditions and also theoretically predicted, could be detected for the first time for networks as well. An analysis of the total structure factors confirmed first evidences for the existence of such structures found in experimental results.

Development of empirical potentials for amorphous silica

Development of empirical potentials for amorphous silica Amorphous silica (SiO2) is of great importance in geoscience and mineralogy as well as a raw material in glass industry. Its structure is characterized as a disordered continuous network of SiO4 tetrahedra. Many efforts have been undertaken to understand the microscopic properties of silica by classical molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. In this method the interatomic interactions are modeled by an effective potential that does not take explicitely into account the electronic degrees of freedom. In this work, we propose a new methodology to parameterize such a potential for silica using ab initio simulations, namely Car-Parrinello (CP) method [Phys. Rev. Lett. 55, 2471 (1985)]. The new potential proposed is compared to the BKS potential [Phys. Rev. Lett. 64, 1955 (1990)] that is considered as the benchmark potential for silica. First, CP simulations have been performed on a liquid silica sample at 3600 K. The structural features so obtained have been compared to the ones predicted by the classical BKS potential. Regarding the bond lengths the BKS tends to underestimate the Si-O bond whereas the Si-Si bond is overestimated. The inter-tetrahedral angular distribution functions are also not well described by the BKS potential. The corresponding mean value of theSiOSi angle is found to be ≃ 147◦, while the CP yields to aSiOSi angle centered around 135◦. Our aim is to fit a classical Born-Mayer/Coulomb pair potential using ab initio calculations. To this end, we use the force-matching method proposed by Ercolessi and Adams [Europhys. Lett. 26, 583 (1994)]. The CP configurations and their corresponding interatomic forces have been considered for a least square fitting procedure. The classical MD simulations with the resulting potential have lead to a structure that is very different from the CP one. Therefore, a different fitting criterion based on the CP partial pair correlation functions was applied. Using this approach the resulting potential shows a better agreement with the CP data than the BKS ones: pair correlation functions, angular distribution functions, structure factors, density of states and pressure/density were improved. At low temperature, the diffusion coefficients appear to be three times higher than those predicted by the BKS model, however showing a similar temperature dependence. Calculations have also been carried out on crystalline samples in order to check the transferability of the potential. The equilibrium geometry as well as the elastic constants of α-quartz at 0 K are well described by our new potential although the crystalline phases have not been considered for the parameterization. We have developed a new potential for silica which represents an improvement over the pair potentials class proposed so far. Furthermore, the fitting methodology that has been developed in this work can be applied to other network forming systems such as germania as well as mixtures of SiO2 with other oxides (e.g. Al2O3, K2O, Na2O).

Thermal fluctuations and boundary conditions in the lattice Boltzmann method

The lattice Boltzmann method is a popular approach for simulating hydrodynamic interactions in soft matter and complex fluids. The solvent is represented on a discrete lattice whose nodes are populated by particle distributions that propagate on the discrete links between the nodes and undergo local collisions. On large length and time scales, the microdynamics leads to a hydrodynamic flow field that satisfies the Navier-Stokes equation. In this thesis, several extensions to the lattice Boltzmann method are developed. In complex fluids, for example suspensions, Brownian motion of the solutes is of paramount importance. However, it can not be simulated with the original lattice Boltzmann method because the dynamics is completely deterministic. It is possible, though, to introduce thermal fluctuations in order to reproduce the equations of fluctuating hydrodynamics. In this work, a generalized lattice gas model is used to systematically derive the fluctuating lattice Boltzmann equation from statistical mechanics principles. The stochastic part of the dynamics is interpreted as a Monte Carlo process, which is then required to satisfy the condition of detailed balance. This leads to an expression for the thermal fluctuations which implies that it is essential to thermalize all degrees of freedom of the system, including the kinetic modes. The new formalism guarantees that the fluctuating lattice Boltzmann equation is simultaneously consistent with both fluctuating hydrodynamics and statistical mechanics. This establishes a foundation for future extensions, such as the treatment of multi-phase and thermal flows. An important range of applications for the lattice Boltzmann method is formed by microfluidics. Fostered by the "lab-on-a-chip" paradigm, there is an increasing need for computer simulations which are able to complement the achievements of theory and experiment. Microfluidic systems are characterized by a large surface-to-volume ratio and, therefore, boundary conditions are of special relevance. On the microscale, the standard no-slip boundary condition used in hydrodynamics has to be replaced by a slip boundary condition. In this work, a boundary condition for lattice Boltzmann is constructed that allows the slip length to be tuned by a single model parameter. Furthermore, a conceptually new approach for constructing boundary conditions is explored, where the reduced symmetry at the boundary is explicitly incorporated into the lattice model. The lattice Boltzmann method is systematically extended to the reduced symmetry model. In the case of a Poiseuille flow in a plane channel, it is shown that a special choice of the collision operator is required to reproduce the correct flow profile. This systematic approach sheds light on the consequences of the reduced symmetry at the boundary and leads to a deeper understanding of boundary conditions in the lattice Boltzmann method. This can help to develop improved boundary conditions that lead to more accurate simulation results.

Crystal phases and glassy dynamics in monodisperse hard ellipsoids

We have performed Monte Carlo and molecular dynamics simulations of suspensions of monodisperse, hard ellipsoids of revolution. Hard-particle models play a key role in statistical mechanics. They are conceptually and computationally simple, and they offer insight into systems in which particle shape is important, including atomic, molecular, colloidal, and granular systems. In the high density phase diagram of prolate hard ellipsoids we have found a new crystal, which is more stable than the stretched FCC structure proposed previously . The new phase, SM2, has a simple monoclinic unit cell containing a basis of two ellipsoids with unequal orientations. The angle of inclination is very soft for length-to-width (aspect) ratio l/w=3, while the other angles are not. A symmetric state of the unit cell exists, related to the densest-known packings of ellipsoids; it is not always the stable one. Our results remove the stretched FCC structure for aspect ratio l/w=3 from the phase diagram of hard, uni-axial ellipsoids. We provide evidence that this holds between aspect ratios 3 and 6, and possibly beyond. Finally, ellipsoids in SM2 at l/w=1.55 exhibit end-over-end flipping, warranting studies of the cross-over to where this dynamics is not possible. Secondly, we studied the dynamics of nearly spherical ellipsoids. In equilibrium, they show a first-order transition from an isotropic phase to a rotator phase, where positions are crystalline but orientations are free. When over-compressing the isotropic phase into the rotator regime, we observed super-Arrhenius slowing down of diffusion and relaxation, and signatures of the cage effect. These features of glassy dynamics are sufficiently strong that asymptotic scaling laws of the Mode-Coupling Theory of the glass transition (MCT) could be tested, and were found to apply. We found strong coupling of positional and orientational degrees of freedom, leading to a common value for the MCT glass-transition volume fraction. Flipping modes were not slowed down significantly. We demonstrated that the results are independent of simulation method, as predicted by MCT. Further, we determined that even intra-cage motion is cooperative. We confirmed the presence of dynamical heterogeneities associated with the cage effect. The transit between cages was seen to occur on short time scales, compared to the time spent in cages; but the transit was shown not to involve displacements distinguishable in character from intra-cage motion. The presence of glassy dynamics was predicted by molecular MCT (MMCT). However, as MMCT disregards crystallization, a test by simulation was required. Glassy dynamics is unusual in monodisperse systems. Crystallization typically intervenes unless polydispersity, network-forming bonds or other asymmetries are introduced. We argue that particle anisometry acts as a sufficient source of disorder to prevent crystallization. This sheds new light on the question of which ingredients are required for glass formation.

"The sound of democracy - the sound of freedom" - Jazz-Rezeption in Deutschland (1945 - 1963)

Im Mittelpunkt der Studie "The Sound of Democracy - the Sound of Freedom". Jazzrezeption in Deutschland (1945 - 1963) steht ein Korpus von 16 Oral-History-Interviews mit Zeitzeugen der deutschen Jazzszene. Interviewt wurden Musiker ebenso wie bildende Künstler, Journalisten, Clubbesitzer und Jazzfans, die die Jazzszene in den 1950ern bildeten. Die Interviews werden in einen Kontext zeitgenössischer Quellen gestellt: Zeitschriftenartikel (hauptsächlich aus dem "Jazz Podium" ebenso wie Radiomanuskripte des Bayerischen Rundfunks.rnDie Ausgangsüberlegung ist die Frage, was der Jazz für sein Publikum bedeutete, mit anderen Worten, warum wählte eine studentische, sich selbst als elitär wahrnehmende Schicht aus dem großen Fundus an kulturellen Ausdrucksformen, die nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg aus den USA nach Deutschland strömten, ausgerechnet den Jazz als persönliche Ausdrucksform? Worin bestand seine symbolische Strahlkraft für diese jungen Menschen?rnIn Zusammenhang mit dieser Frage steht die Überlegung: In welchem Maße wurde Jazz als dezidiert amerikanische Ausdrucksform wahrgenommen und welche Amerikabilder wurden durch den Jazz transportiert? Wurde Jazz bewusst als Werkzeug der Besatzer zur demokratischen Umerziehung des deutschen Volkes eingesetzt und wenn ja, in welcher Form, beziehungsweise in welchem Maß? Wie stark war die Symbolleistung und metaphorische Bedeutung des Jazz für das deutsche Publikum und in welchem Zusammenhang steht die Symbolleistung des Jazz mit der Symbolleistung der USA als Besetzungs- bzw. Befreiungsmacht? rn

Electron spectroscopy of novel charge transfer systems based on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Organische Ladungstransfersysteme weisen eine Vielfalt von konkurrierenden Wechselwirkungen zwischen Ladungs-, Spin- und Gitterfreiheitsgraden auf. Dies führt zu interessanten physikalischen Eigenschaften, wie metallische Leitfähigkeit, Supraleitung und Magnetismus. Diese Dissertation beschäftigt sich mit der elektronischen Struktur von organischen Ladungstransfersalzen aus drei Material-Familien. Dabei kamen unterschiedliche Photoemissions- und Röntgenspektroskopietechniken zum Einsatz. Die untersuchten Moleküle wurden z.T. im MPI für Polymerforschung synthetisiert. Sie stammen aus der Familie der Coronene (Donor Hexamethoxycoronen HMC und Akzeptor Coronen-hexaon COHON) und Pyrene (Donor Tetra- und Hexamethoxypyren TMP und HMP) im Komplex mit dem klassischen starken Akzeptor Tetracyanoquinodimethan (TCNQ). Als dritte Familie wurden Ladungstransfersalze der k-(BEDT-TTF)2X Familie (X ist ein monovalentes Anion) untersucht. Diese Materialien liegen nahe bei einem Bandbreite-kontrollierten Mottübergang im Phasendiagramm.rnFür Untersuchungen mittels Ultraviolett-Photoelektronenspektroskopie (UPS) wurden UHV-deponierte dünne Filme erzeugt. Dabei kam ein neuer Doppelverdampfer zum Einsatz, welcher speziell für Milligramm-Materialmengen entwickelt wurde. Diese Methode wies im Ladungstransferkomplex im Vergleich mit der reinen Donor- und Akzeptorspezies energetische Verschiebungen von Valenzzuständen im Bereich weniger 100meV nach. Ein wichtiger Aspekt der UPS-Messungen lag im direkten Vergleich mit ab-initio Rechnungen.rnDas Problem der unvermeidbaren Oberflächenverunreinigungen von lösungsgezüchteten 3D-Kristallen wurde durch die Methode Hard-X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (HAXPES) bei Photonenenergien um 6 keV (am Elektronenspeicherring PETRA III in Hamburg) überwunden. Die große mittlere freie Weglänge der Photoelektronen im Bereich von 15 nm resultiert in echter Volumensensitivität. Die ersten HAXPES Experimente an Ladungstransferkomplexen weltweit zeigten große chemische Verschiebungen (mehrere eV). In der Verbindung HMPx-TCNQy ist die N1s-Linie ein Fingerabdruck der Cyanogruppe im TCNQ und zeigt eine Aufspaltung und einen Shift zu höheren Bindungsenergien von bis zu 6 eV mit zunehmendem HMP-Gehalt. Umgekehrt ist die O1s-Linie ein Fingerabdruck der Methoxygruppe in HMP und zeigt eine markante Aufspaltung und eine Verschiebung zu geringeren Bindungsenergien (bis zu etwa 2,5eV chemischer Verschiebung), d.h. eine Größenordnung größer als die im Valenzbereich.rnAls weitere synchrotronstrahlungsbasierte Technik wurde Near-Edge-X-ray-Absorption Fine Structure (NEXAFS) Spektroskopie am Speicherring ANKA Karlsruhe intensiv genutzt. Die mittlere freie Weglänge der niederenergetischen Sekundärelektronen (um 5 nm). Starke Intensitätsvariationen von bestimmten Vorkanten-Resonanzen (als Signatur der unbesetzte Zustandsdichte) zeigen unmittelbar die Änderung der Besetzungszahlen der beteiligten Orbitale in der unmittelbaren Umgebung des angeregten Atoms. Damit war es möglich, präzise die Beteiligung spezifischer Orbitale im Ladungstransfermechanismus nachzuweisen. Im genannten Komplex wird Ladung von den Methoxy-Orbitalen 2e(Pi*) und 6a1(σ*) zu den Cyano-Orbitalen b3g und au(Pi*) und – in geringerem Maße – zum b1g und b2u(σ*) der Cyanogruppe transferiert. Zusätzlich treten kleine energetische Shifts mit unterschiedlichem Vorzeichen für die Donor- und Akzeptor-Resonanzen auf, vergleichbar mit den in UPS beobachteten Shifts.rn

Chiral properties of two-flavour QCD at zero and non-zero temperature

Lattice Quantum Chromodynamics (LQCD) is the preferred tool for obtaining non-perturbative results from QCD in the low-energy regime. It has by nowrnentered the era in which high precision calculations for a number of phenomenologically relevant observables at the physical point, with dynamical quark degrees of freedom and controlled systematics, become feasible. Despite these successes there are still quantities where control of systematic effects is insufficient. The subject of this thesis is the exploration of the potential of todays state-of-the-art simulation algorithms for non-perturbativelyrn$\mathcal{O}(a)$-improved Wilson fermions to produce reliable results in thernchiral regime and at the physical point both for zero and non-zero temperature. Important in this context is the control over the chiral extrapolation. Thisrnthesis is concerned with two particular topics, namely the computation of hadronic form factors at zero temperature, and the properties of the phaserntransition in the chiral limit of two-flavour QCD.rnrnThe electromagnetic iso-vector form factor of the pion provides a platform to study systematic effects and the chiral extrapolation for observables connected to the structure of mesons (and baryons). Mesonic form factors are computationally simpler than their baryonic counterparts but share most of the systematic effects. This thesis contains a comprehensive study of the form factor in the regime of low momentum transfer $q^2$, where the form factor is connected to the charge radius of the pion. A particular emphasis is on the region very close to $q^2=0$ which has not been explored so far, neither in experiment nor in LQCD. The results for the form factor close the gap between the smallest spacelike $q^2$-value available so far and $q^2=0$, and reach an unprecedented accuracy at full control over the main systematic effects. This enables the model-independent extraction of the pion charge radius. The results for the form factor and the charge radius are used to test chiral perturbation theory ($\chi$PT) and are thereby extrapolated to the physical point and the continuum. The final result in units of the hadronic radius $r_0$ is rn$$ \left\langle r_\pi^2 \right\rangle^{\rm phys}/r_0^2 = 1.87 \: \left(^{+12}_{-10}\right)\left(^{+\:4}_{-15}\right) \quad \textnormal{or} \quad \left\langle r_\pi^2 \right\rangle^{\rm phys} = 0.473 \: \left(^{+30}_{-26}\right)\left(^{+10}_{-38}\right)(10) \: \textnormal{fm} \;, $$rn which agrees well with the results from other measurements in LQCD and experiment. Note, that this is the first continuum extrapolated result for the charge radius from LQCD which has been extracted from measurements of the form factor in the region of small $q^2$.rnrnThe order of the phase transition in the chiral limit of two-flavour QCD and the associated transition temperature are the last unkown features of the phase diagram at zero chemical potential. The two possible scenarios are a second order transition in the $O(4)$-universality class or a first order transition. Since direct simulations in the chiral limit are not possible the transition can only be investigated by simulating at non-zero quark mass with a subsequent chiral extrapolation, guided by the universal scaling in the vicinity of the critical point. The thesis presents the setup and first results from a study on this topic. The study provides the ideal platform to test the potential and limits of todays simulation algorithms at finite temperature. The results from a first scan at a constant zero-temperature pion mass of about 290~MeV are promising, and it appears that simulations down to physical quark masses are feasible. Of particular relevance for the order of the chiral transition is the strength of the anomalous breaking of the $U_A(1)$ symmetry at the transition point. It can be studied by looking at the degeneracies of the correlation functions in scalar and pseudoscalar channels. For the temperature scan reported in this thesis the breaking is still pronounced in the transition region and the symmetry becomes effectively restored only above $1.16\:T_C$. The thesis also provides an extensive outline of research perspectives and includes a generalisation of the standard multi-histogram method to explicitly $\beta$-dependent fermion actions.

Wet and dry model granulates under mechanical load : a confocal microscopy study

Granular matter, also known as bulk solids, consists of discrete particles with sizes between micrometers and meters. They are present in many industrial applications as well as daily life, like in food processing, pharmaceutics or in the oil and mining industry. When handling granular matter the bulk solids are stored, mixed, conveyed or filtered. These techniques are based on observations in macroscopic experiments, i.e. rheological examinations of the bulk properties. Despite the amply investigations of bulk mechanics, the relation between single particle motion and macroscopic behavior is still not well understood. For exploring the microscopic properties on a single particle level, 3D imaging techniques are required.rnThe objective of this work was the investigation of single particle motions in a bulk system in 3D under an external mechanical load, i.e. compression and shear. During the mechanical load the structural and dynamical properties of these systems were examined with confocal microscopy. Therefor new granular model systems in the wet and dry state were designed and prepared. As the particles are solid bodies, their motion is described by six degrees of freedom. To explore their entire motion with all degrees of freedom, a technique to visualize the rotation of spherical micrometer sized particles in 3D was developed. rnOne of the foci during this dissertation was a model system for dry cohesive granular matter. In such systems the particle motion during a compression of the granular matter was investigated. In general the rotation of single particles was the more sensitive parameter compared to the translation. In regions with large structural changes the rotation had an earlier onset than the translation. In granular systems under shear, shear dilatation and shear zone formation were observed. Globally the granular sediments showed a shear behavior, which was known already from classical shear experiments, for example with Jenike cells. Locally the shear zone formation was enhanced, when near the applied load a pre-diluted region existed. In regions with constant volume fraction a mixing between the different particle layers occurred. In particular an exchange of particles between the current flowing region and the non-flowing region was observed. rnThe second focus was on model systems for wet granular matter, where an additional binding liquid is added to the particle suspension. To examine the 3D structure of the binding liquid on the micrometer scale independently from the particles, a second illumination and detection beam path was implemented. In shear and compression experiments of wet clusters and bulk systems completely different dynamics compared to dry cohesive models systems occured. In a Pickering emulsion-like system large structural changes predominantly occurred in the local environment of binding liquid droplets. These large local structural changes were due to an energy interplay between the energy stored in the binding droplet during its deformation and the binding energy of particles at the droplet interface. rnConfocal microscopy in combination with nanoindentation gave new insights into the single particle motions and dynamics of granular systems under a mechanical load. These novel experimental results can help to improve the understanding of the relationship between bulk properties of granular matter, such as volume fraction or yield stress and the dynamics on a single particle level.rnrn

Development of models and methods to simulate peptide-assisted nucleation and growth of calcium-minerals

In den vergangenen Jahren wurden einige bislang unbekannte Phänomene experimentell beobachtet, wie etwa die Existenz unterschiedlicher Prä-Nukleations-Strukturen. Diese haben zu einem neuen Verständnis von Prozessen, die auf molekularer Ebene während der Nukleation und dem Wachstum von Kristallen auftreten, beigetragen. Die Auswirkungen solcher Prä-Nukleations-Strukturen auf den Prozess der Biomineralisation sind noch nicht hinreichend verstanden. Die Mechanismen, mittels derer biomolekulare Modifikatoren, wie Peptide, mit Prä-Nukleations-Strukturen interagieren und somit den Nukleationsprozess von Mineralen beeinflussen könnten, sind vielfältig. Molekulare Simulationen sind zur Analyse der Formation von Prä-Nukleations-Strukturen in Anwesenheit von Modifikatoren gut geeignet. Die vorliegende Arbeit beschreibt einen Ansatz zur Analyse der Interaktion von Peptiden mit den in Lösung befindlichen Bestandteilen der entstehenden Kristalle mit Hilfe von Molekular-Dynamik Simulationen.rnUm informative Simulationen zu ermöglichen, wurde in einem ersten Schritt die Qualität bestehender Kraftfelder im Hinblick auf die Beschreibung von mit Calciumionen interagierenden Oligoglutamaten in wässrigen Lösungen untersucht. Es zeigte sich, dass große Unstimmigkeiten zwischen etablierten Kraftfeldern bestehen, und dass keines der untersuchten Kraftfelder eine realistische Beschreibung der Ionen-Paarung dieser komplexen Ionen widerspiegelte. Daher wurde eine Strategie zur Optimierung bestehender biomolekularer Kraftfelder in dieser Hinsicht entwickelt. Relativ geringe Veränderungen der auf die Ionen–Peptid van-der-Waals-Wechselwirkungen bezogenen Parameter reichten aus, um ein verlässliches Modell für das untersuchte System zu erzielen. rnDas umfassende Sampling des Phasenraumes der Systeme stellt aufgrund der zahlreichen Freiheitsgrade und der starken Interaktionen zwischen Calciumionen und Glutamat in Lösung eine besondere Herausforderung dar. Daher wurde die Methode der Biasing Potential Replica Exchange Molekular-Dynamik Simulationen im Hinblick auf das Sampling von Oligoglutamaten justiert und es erfolgte die Simulation von Peptiden verschiedener Kettenlängen in Anwesenheit von Calciumionen. Mit Hilfe der Sketch-Map Analyse konnten im Rahmen der Simulationen zahlreiche stabile Ionen-Peptid-Komplexe identifiziert werden, welche die Formation von Prä-Nukleations-Strukturen beeinflussen könnten. Abhängig von der Kettenlänge des Peptids weisen diese Komplexe charakteristische Abstände zwischen den Calciumionen auf. Diese ähneln einigen Abständen zwischen den Calciumionen in jenen Phasen von Calcium-Oxalat Kristallen, die in Anwesenheit von Oligoglutamaten gewachsen sind. Die Analogie der Abstände zwischen Calciumionen in gelösten Ionen-Peptid-Komplexen und in Calcium-Oxalat Kristallen könnte auf die Bedeutung von Ionen-Peptid-Komplexen im Prozess der Nukleation und des Wachstums von Biomineralen hindeuten und stellt einen möglichen Erklärungsansatz für die Fähigkeit von Oligoglutamaten zur Beeinflussung der Phase des sich formierenden Kristalls dar, die experimentell beobachtet wurde.

Study of the helicity dependence of pi 0 photoproduction on proton at MAMI

The excitation spectrum is one of the fundamental properties of every spatially extended system. The excitations of the building blocks of normal matter, i.e., protons and neutrons (nucleons), play an important role in our understanding of the low energy regime of the strong interaction. Due to the large coupling, perturbative solutions of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) are not appropriate to calculate long-range phenomena of hadrons. For many years, constituent quark models were used to understand the excitation spectra. Recently, calculations in lattice QCD make first connections between excited nucleons and the fundamental field quanta (quarks and gluons). Due to their short lifetime and large decay width, excited nucleons appear as resonances in scattering processes like pion nucleon scattering or meson photoproduction. In order to disentangle individual resonances with definite spin and parity in experimental data, partial wave analyses are necessary. Unique solutions in these analyses can only be expected if sufficient empirical information about spin degrees of freedom is available. The measurement of spin observables in pion photoproduction is the focus of this thesis. The polarized electron beam of the Mainz Microtron (MAMI) was used to produce high-intensity, polarized photon beams with tagged energies up to 1.47 GeV. A "frozen-spin" Butanol target in combination with an almost 4π detector setup consisting of the Crystal Ball and the TAPS calorimeters allowed the precise determination of the helicity dependence of the γp → π0p reaction. In this thesis, as an improvement of the target setup, an internal polarizing solenoid has been constructed and tested. A magnetic field of 2.32 T and homogeneity of 1.22×10−3 in the target volume have been achieved. The helicity asymmetry E, i.e., the difference of events with total helicity 1/2 and 3/2 divided by the sum, was determined from data taken in the years 2013-14. The subtraction of background events arising from nucleons bound in Carbon and Oxygen was an important part of the analysis. The results for the asymmetry E are compared to existing data and predictions from various models. The results show a reasonable agreement to the models in the energy region of the ∆(1232)-resonance but large discrepancies are observed for energy above 600 MeV. The expansion of the present data in terms of Legendre polynomials, shows the sensitivity of the data to partial wave amplitudes up to F-waves. Additionally, a first, preliminary multipole analysis of the present data together with other results from the Crystal Ball experiment has been as been performed.