Proteolysis of the receptor for advanced glycation end products by matrix metalloproteinases

RAGE mediates diverse physiological and pathological effects by binding a variety of ligands. Despite incomplete understanding of RAGE-mediated disorders soluble RAGE (sRAGE) has been identified as a potential biomarker for RAGE-related diseases and possibly represents a hopeful pharmaceutical against RAGE-mediated disorders. Nevertheless, the source of sRAGE remains poorly investigated. Currently sRAGE is thought to be derived exclusively from alternative splicing of mRNA. In this thesis it was investigated whether sRAGE can also be released as a result of ectodomain shedding of full-length RAGE. Using cells overexpressing RAGE as a model system, it was demonstrated clearly that RAGE undergoes ectodomain shedding in both constitutive and regulated manner. Several stimuli including PMA, AMPA, calcium and chelerythrine stimulated the release of sRAGE into cell culture medium. Moreover, possible mechanisms that regulate ectodomain shedding of RAGE were investigated and it was found that shedding of RAGE is likely independent from PKC and MAPK pathways. By using gain of function and loss of function approaches MMP9 but not ADAM10, ADAM17 or MT1-MMP was characterized as the metalloproteinase that mediates shedding of RAGE. Furthermore, it was shown that cytoplasmic domain of RAGE is not essential for shedding of RAGE. In addition, the potential cleavage site of RAGE by MMP9 was investigated and a lack of sequence specificity for the RAGE processing proteinase was demonstrated by mutation analysis. Finally the physiopathological significance of shedding of RAGE is discussed. In conclusion, for the first time ectodomain shedding of human RAGE and the underlying regulatory mechanisms were investigated. The data open a new field for modulation of RAGE shedding as a novel intervention approach against RAGE-mediated diseases.

Regulatory T cell-mediated suppression of Th9 cell development and effector function

T helper (Th) 9 cells are an important subpopulation of the CD4+ T helper cells. Due to their ability to secrete Interleukin-(IL-)9, Th9 cells essentially contribute to the expulsion of parasitic helminths from the intestinal tract but they play also an immunopathological role in the course of asthma. Recently, a beneficial function of Th9 cells in anti-tumor immune responses was published. In a murine melanoma tumor model Th9 cells were shown to enhance the anti-melanoma immune response via the recruitment of CD8+ T cells, dendritic cells and mast cells. In contrast to Th9 effector cells regulatory T cells (Tregs) are able to control an immune response with the aid of different suppressive mechanisms. Based on their ability to suppress an immune response Tregs are believed to be beneficial in asthma by diminishing excessive allergic reactions. However, concerning cancer they can have a detrimental function because Tregs inhibit an effective anti-tumor immune reaction. Thus, the analysis of Th9 suppression by Tregs is of central importance concerning the development of therapeutic strategies for the treatment of cancer and allergic diseases and was therefore the main objective of this PhD thesis.rnIn general it could be demonstrated that the development of Th9 cells can be inhibited by Tregs in vitro. The production of the lineage-specific cytokine IL-9 by developing Th9 cells was completely suppressed at a Treg/Th9 ratio of 1:1 on the transcriptional (qRT-PCR) as well as on the translational level (ELISA). In contrast, the expression of IRF4 that was found to strongly promote Th9 development was not reduced in the presence of Tregs, suggesting that IRF4 requires additional transcription factors to induce the differentiation of Th9 cells. In order to identify such factors, which regulate Th9 development and therefore represent potential targets for Treg-mediated suppressive mechanisms, a transcriptome analysis using “next-generation sequencing” was performed. The expression of some genes which were found to be up- or downregulated in Th9 cells in the presence of Tregs was validated with qRT-PCR. Time limitations prevented a detailed functional analysis of these candidate genes. Nevertheless, the analysis of the suppressive mechanisms revealed that Tregs probably suppress Th9 cells via the increase of the intracellular cAMP concentration. In contrast, IL-9 production by differentiated Th9 cells was only marginally affected by Tregs in vitro and in vivo analysis (asthma, melanoma model). Hence, Tregs represent very effective inhibitors of Th9 development whereas they have only a minimal suppressive influence on differentiated Th9 cells.rn