Bestimmung der fehlenden transversalen Energie auf der ersten Triggerstufe beim ATLAS-Experiment und Optimierung der Triggerselektion von supersymmetrischen Ereignissen

Das Standardmodell der Teilchenphysik, das drei der vier fundamentalen Wechselwirkungen beschreibt, stimmt bisher sehr gut mit den Messergebnissen der Experimente am CERN, dem Fermilab und anderen Forschungseinrichtungen überein. rnAllerdings können im Rahmen dieses Modells nicht alle Fragen der Teilchenphysik beantwortet werden. So lässt sich z.B. die vierte fundamentale Kraft, die Gravitation, nicht in das Standardmodell einbauen.rnDarüber hinaus hat das Standardmodell auch keinen Kandidaten für dunkle Materie, die nach kosmologischen Messungen etwa 25 % unseres Universum ausmacht.rnAls eine der vielversprechendsten Lösungen für diese offenen Fragen wird die Supersymmetrie angesehen, die eine Symmetrie zwischen Fermionen und Bosonen einführt. rnAus diesem Modell ergeben sich sogenannte supersymmetrische Teilchen, denen jeweils ein Standardmodell-Teilchen als Partner zugeordnet sind.rnEin mögliches Modell dieser Symmetrie ist das R-Paritätserhaltende mSUGRA-Modell, falls Supersymmetrie in der Natur realisiert ist.rnIn diesem Modell ist das leichteste supersymmetrische Teilchen (LSP) neutral und schwach wechselwirkend, sodass es nicht direkt im Detektor nachgewiesen werden kann, sondern indirekt über die vom LSP fortgetragene Energie, die fehlende transversale Energie (etmiss), nachgewiesen werden muss.rnrnDas ATLAS-Experiment wird 2010 mit Hilfe des pp-Beschleunigers LHC mit einer Schwerpunktenergie von sqrt(s)=7-10 TeV mit einer Luminosität von 10^32 #/(cm^2*s) mit der Suche nach neuer Physik starten.rnDurch die sehr hohe Datenrate, resultierend aus den etwa 10^8 Auslesekanälen des ATLAS-Detektors bei einer Bunchcrossingrate von 40 MHz, wird ein Triggersystem benötigt, um die zu speichernde Datenmenge zu reduzieren.rnDabei muss ein Kompromiss zwischen der verfügbaren Triggerrate und einer sehr hohen Triggereffizienz für die interessanten Ereignisse geschlossen werden, da etwa nur jedes 10^8-te Ereignisse für die Suche nach neuer Physik interessant ist.rnZur Erfüllung der Anforderungen an das Triggersystem wird im Experiment ein dreistufiges System verwendet, bei dem auf der ersten Triggerstufe mit Abstand die höchste Datenreduktion stattfindet.rnrnIm Rahmen dieser Arbeit rn%, die vollständig auf Monte-Carlo-Simulationen basiert, rnist zum einen ein wesentlicher Beitrag zum grundlegenden Verständnis der Eigenschaft der fehlenden transversalen Energie auf der ersten Triggerstufe geleistet worden.rnZum anderen werden Methoden vorgestellt, mit denen es möglich ist, die etmiss-Triggereffizienz für Standardmodellprozesse und mögliche mSUGRA-Szenarien aus Daten zu bestimmen. rnBei der Optimierung der etmiss-Triggerschwellen für die erste Triggerstufe ist die Triggerrate bei einer Luminosität von 10^33 #/(cm^2*s) auf 100 Hz festgelegt worden.rnFür die Triggeroptimierung wurden verschiedene Simulationen benötigt, bei denen eigene Entwicklungsarbeit eingeflossen ist.rnMit Hilfe dieser Simulationen und den entwickelten Optimierungsalgorithmen wird gezeigt, dass trotz der niedrigen Triggerrate das Entdeckungspotential (für eine Signalsignifikanz von mindestens 5 sigma) durch Kombinationen der etmiss-Schwelle mit Lepton bzw. Jet-Triggerschwellen gegenüber dem bestehenden ATLAS-Triggermenü auf der ersten Triggerstufe um bis zu 66 % erhöht wird.

Structure formation as studied by EPR spectroscopy: From simple solutions to nanoparticles

In this thesis, three nitroxide based ionic systems were used to investigate structure and dynamics of their respective solutions in mixed solvents by means of electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) spectroscopy at X- and W-band (9.5 and 94.5 GHz, respectively). rnFirst, the solvation of the inorganic radical Fremy’s salt (K2ON(SO3)2) in isotope substituted binary solvent mixtures (methanol/water) was investigated by means of high-field (W-band) pulse ENDOR spectroscopy and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. From the analysis of orientation-selective 1H and 2H ENDOR spectra the principal components of the hyperfine coupling (hfc) tensor for chemically different protons (alcoholic methyl vs. exchangeable protons) were obtained. The methyl protons of the organic solvent approach with a mean distance of 3.5 Å perpendicular to the approximate plane spanned by ON(S)2 of the probe molecule. Exchangeable protons were found to be distributed isotropically, approaching closest to Fremy’s salt from the hydrogen-bonded network around the sulfonate groups. The distribution of exchangeable and methyl protons as found in MD simulations is in full agreement with the ENDOR results. The solvation was found to be similar for the studied solvent ratios between 1:2.3 and 2.3:1 and dominated by an interplay of H-bond (electrostatic) interactions and steric considerations with the NO group merely involved into H-bonds.rnFurther, the conformation of spin labeled poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDADMAC) solutions in aqueous alcohol (methanol, ethanol, n-propanol, ethylene glycol, glycerol) mixtures in dependence of divalent sodium sulfate was investigated with double electron-electron resonance (DEER) spectroscopy. The DEER data was analyzed using the worm-like chain model which suggests that in organic-water solvent mixtures the polymer backbones are preferentially solvated by the organic solvent. We found a less serve impact on conformational changes due to salt than usually predicted in polyelectrolyte theory which stresses the importance of a delicate balance of hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions, in particular in the presence of organic solvents.rnFinally, the structure and dynamics of miniemulsions and polymerdispersions prepared with anionic surfactants, that were partially replaced by a spin labeled fatty acid in presence and absence of a lanthanide beta-diketonate complex was characterized by CW EPR spectroscopy. Such miniemulsions form multilayers with the surfactant head group bound to the lanthanide ion. Beta-diketonates were formerly used as NMR shift reagents and nowadays find application as luminescent materials in OLEDs and LCDs and as contrast agent in MRT. The embedding of the complex into a polymer matrix results in an easy processable material. It was found that the structure formation takes place in miniemulsion and is preserved during polymerization. For surfactants with carboxyl-head group a higher order of the alkyl chains and less lateral diffusion is found than for sulfat-head groups, suggesting a more uniform and stronger coordination to the metal ion. The stability of these bilayers depends on the temperature and the used surfactant which should be considered for the used polymerization temperature if a maximum output of the structured regions is wished.

Total internal reflection fluorescence cross-correlation spectroscopy: theory and application for studying boundary slip phenomenon

I present a new experimental method called Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Cross-Correlation Spectroscopy (TIR-FCCS). It is a method that can probe hydrodynamic flows near solid surfaces, on length scales of tens of nanometres. Fluorescent tracers flowing with the liquid are excited by evanescent light, produced by epi-illumination through the periphery of a high NA oil-immersion objective. Due to the fast decay of the evanescent wave, fluorescence only occurs for tracers in the ~100 nm proximity of the surface, thus resulting in very high normal resolution. The time-resolved fluorescence intensity signals from two laterally shifted (in flow direction) observation volumes, created by two confocal pinholes are independently measured and recorded. The cross-correlation of these signals provides important information for the tracers’ motion and thus their flow velocity. Due to the high sensitivity of the method, fluorescent species with different size, down to single dye molecules can be used as tracers. The aim of my work was to build an experimental setup for TIR-FCCS and use it to experimentally measure the shear rate and slip length of water flowing on hydrophilic and hydrophobic surfaces. However, in order to extract these parameters from the measured correlation curves a quantitative data analysis is needed. This is not straightforward task due to the complexity of the problem, which makes the derivation of analytical expressions for the correlation functions needed to fit the experimental data, impossible. Therefore in order to process and interpret the experimental results I also describe a new numerical method of data analysis of the acquired auto- and cross-correlation curves – Brownian Dynamics techniques are used to produce simulated auto- and cross-correlation functions and to fit the corresponding experimental data. I show how to combine detailed and fairly realistic theoretical modelling of the phenomena with accurate measurements of the correlation functions, in order to establish a fully quantitative method to retrieve the flow properties from the experiments. An importance-sampling Monte Carlo procedure is employed in order to fit the experiments. This provides the optimum parameter values together with their statistical error bars. The approach is well suited for both modern desktop PC machines and massively parallel computers. The latter allows making the data analysis within short computing times. I applied this method to study flow of aqueous electrolyte solution near smooth hydrophilic and hydrophobic surfaces. Generally on hydrophilic surface slip is not expected, while on hydrophobic surface some slippage may exists. Our results show that on both hydrophilic and moderately hydrophobic (contact angle ~85°) surfaces the slip length is ~10-15nm or lower, and within the limitations of the experiments and the model, indistinguishable from zero.