Functional silicones and silicone-containing block copolymers

Polysiloxanes can be synthesized and subsequently modified (i) by the attachment of small molecules that change the properties of the silicone in such a way that it becomes more hydrophilic, but under the premise that this does not go together with a loss of the silicone-specific features. This can be done by adding hydrophilic sidechains to a polysiloxane. Polyethers like poly(ethylene glycol) or hyperbranched polyether-polyols are suitable in this regard. In order to assure that the silicone properties retain, these side groups can be attached to only one part of the polysiloxane backbone, which results in a block copolymer that consists of a common polysiloxane and a second block of the modified structure. (ii) Polysiloxanes can be equipped with functional groups that are capable of initializing polymerization of a different monomer (macroinitiator approach). For example, hydroxyl groups are used to initiate the ring opening polymerization of cyclic esters, or ATRP macroinitiators can be synthesized to add a second block via controlled radical polymerization. Stimuli responsive polymers like poly(oligoethylene glycol methacrylate) (POEGMA) can be added via this route to create “smart” siloxane-containing block copolymers that respond to certain stimuli. rnAn important premise for all synthetic routes is to achieve the targeted structure in a process as simple as possible, because facile availability of the material is crucial with regard to industrial applicability of the invented products. rnConcerning characterization of the synthesized macromolecules, emphasize is put on their (temperature dependent) aggregation behavior, which can be investigated by several microscopic and scattering methods, their behavior at the interface between silicone oils and water and their thermal properties.rnrn

Neue Methoden zur Darstellung von Blockcopolymeren unter Beteiligung radikalischer Polymerisationsmechanismen

Im Rahmen dieser Dissertation wurden die Synthese und die Charakterisierung verschiedener, zum Teil neuartiger Blockcopolymere beschrieben, wobei die Einbeziehung radikalischer Polymeri-sationsmechanismen den konzeptionellen Kern ausmachte. Mit einer auf die jeweilige Kombination von Monomeren zugeschnittenen Syntheseroute gelang die Verknüpfung von Segmenten, die allein mittels der herkömmlich zur Synthese von Blockcopolymeren genutzten, ionischen Mechanismen nur mit hohem Aufwand oder gar nicht zu verbinden sind. Auf materieller Seite stand die Herstellung amphiphiler Strukturen im Vordergrund. Diese wurden entweder direkt beim Aufbau der Blockcopo-lymere oder nach anschließender polymeranaloger Umsetzung eines ihrer Segmente erhalten. Solche amphiphilen Substanzen besitzen aufgrund ihrer Grenzflächenaktivität Anwendungspotential z. B. als Stabilisatoren in der Dispersionspolymerisation oder als Flokkulantien. Es wurden drei Verfahren zum Aufbau von Blockcopolymeren untersucht:1. Die Transformation von anionischer zu freier radikalischer Polymerisation für die Synthese von Polystyrol-b-poly(N-vinylformamid) (PS-b-P(VFA)).2. Die Transformation von anionischer zu kontrollierter radikalischer Polymerisation (ATRP) für den Aufbau von Blockcopolymeren aus Poly(dimethylsiloxan) PDMS und Segmenten von t-Butylacrylat (t-BuA) bzw. (2-(Trimethylsiloxy)ethyl)methacrylat (TMS-HEMA).3. Die kontrollierte radikalische Polymerisation unter Einsatz von Triazolinyl als Gegenradikal zur Synthese von Poly[(2-(trimethylsiloxy)ethyl)methacrylat]-b-polystyrol (P(TMS-HEMA)-b-PS) als alternative Route zur anionischen Polymerisation.

Coil-ring-coil block copolymers as building blocks of supramolecular hollow cylindrical brushes

This work describes the synthesis of a new class of rod-coil block copolymers, oligosubstituted shape persistent macrocycles, (coil-ring-coil block copolymers), and their behavior in solution and in the solid state.The coil-ring-coil block copolymers are formed by nanometer sized shape persistent macrocycles based on the phenyl-ethynyl backbone as rigid block and oligomers of polystyrene or polydimethylsiloxane as flexible blocks. The strategy that has been followed is to synthesize the macrocycles with an alcoholic functionality and the polymer carboxylic acids independently, and then bind them together by esterification. The ester bond is stable and relatively easy to form.The synthesis of the shape persistent macrocycles is based on two separate steps. In the first step the building blocks of the macrocycles are connected by Hagiara-Sogonaschira coupling to form an 'half-ring' as precursor, that contains two free acetylenes. In the second step the half-ring is cyclized by forming two sp-sp bonds via a copper-catalyzed Glaser coupling under pseudo-high-dilution conditions. The polystyrene carboxylic acid was prepared directly by siphoning the living anionic polymer chain into a THF solution, saturated with CO2, while the polydimethylsiloxane carboxylic acid was obtained by hydrosilylating an unsaturated benzylester with an Si-H terminated polydimethylsiloxane, and cleavage of the ester. The carbodiimide coupling was found to be the best way to connect macrocycles and polymers in high yield and high purity.The polystyrene-ring-polystyrene block copolymers are, depending on the molecular weight of the polystyrene, lyotropic liquid crystals in cyclohexane. The aggregation behavior of the copolymers in solution was investigated in more detail using several technique. As a result it can be concluded that the polystyrene-ring-polystyrene block copolymers can aggregate into hollow cylinder-like objects with an average length of 700 nm by a combination of shape complementary and demixing of rigid and flexible polymer parts. The resulting structure can be described as supramolecular hollow cylindrical brush.If the lyotropic solution of the polystyrene-ring-polystyrene block copolymers are dried, they remain birefringent indicating that the solid state has an ordered structure. The polydimethylsiloxane-ring-polydimethylsiloxane block copolymers are more or less fluid at room temperature, and are all birefringent (termotropic liquid crystals) as well. This is a prove that the copolymers are ordered in the fluid state. By a careful investigation using electron diffraction and wide-angle X-ray scattering, it has been possible to derive a model for the 3D-order of the copolymers. The data indicate a lamella structure for both type of copolymers. The macrocycles are arranged in a layer of columns. These crystalline layers are separated by amorphous layers which contain the polymers substituents.

Poly(para-phenylenethinylen)e - Synthese, Charakterisierung und Eigenschaften von endfunktionalisierten Polymeren und Stäbchen-Knäuel-Diblockcopolymeren

Der erste Teil der vorliegenden Dissertation beschäftigt sich mit der Eignung des ?,?-dithiolfunktionalisierten Poly(para-phenylenethinylen)s (PPE) als sogenannter „molekularer Draht“ für die molekulare Elektronik. Über die HECK-CASSAR-SONOGASHIRA-Reaktion wurden vollständig endfunktionalisierte, defektfreie Polymere mit durchschnittlichen Polymerisationsgraden von bis zu 45 Repetitionseinheiten synthetisiert. Die starke Aggregationsneigung der PPE, die die Anordnung der Polymerketten zwischen den Goldelektroden unterstützen soll, wurde mittels Rasterkraft- und Rastertunnelmikroskopie untersucht. Für die Untersuchungen zur Dotierbarkeit wurden ESR-, ENDOR-, UPS- und XPS-Messungen durchgeführt. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass sich das PPE reduzieren lässt.Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurden die PPE zur Synthese von Stäbchen-Knäuel-Diblockcopolymeren eingesetzt. Die Darstellung erfolgte nach der 'grafting onto'-Methode, indem monocarboxyl-endfunktionalisiertes PPE mit flexiblen monohydroxyl-endfunktionalisiertem Polyethylenglykol, Polydimethylsulfoxid bzw. Polytetrahydrofuran verestert wurde. Den Nachweis der Diblockcopolymerbildung erbrachten die 1H?NMR-Spektroskopie und die für Diblockcopolymere noch wenig angewandte MALDI-TOF-Massenspektrometrie. Mittels Rasterkraftmikroskopie und Computersimulationen zur Molekularmechanik und -dynamik wurden die Aggregationseigenschaften der Diblockcopolymere untersucht.

Neuartige Polyelektrolytstrukturen auf der Basis von L-Lysin

In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden drei Polyelektrolyt-Architekturen zunehmender Verzweigung auf der Basis von L-Lysin vorgestellt. Zunächst wird auf das Aggregationsverhalten des linearen Blockpolyelektrolyten Polystyrol-b-Poly(L-Lysin) eingegangen. Dabei wird der Einfluss der Lysinblocklänge (NLys = 10…70) bei gleich bleibendem, sehr kurzem hydrophobem Polystyrolsegment untersucht. Wie sich der Polystyrolblock auf die Helixbildung auswirkt, kann mit Hilfe von Zirkulardichroismus nachgewiesen werden. Nach Bestimmung der kritischen Mizellenkonzentration über Fluoreszenzspektroskopie wird mittels statischer Streumethoden (SLS, SANS) eine zylinderförmige Mizelle mit einem Kernradius von 4,4 nm charakterisiert. Im zweiten Abschnitt werden die optischen Eigenschaften von sternförmigen, rot fluoreszierenden Perylendiimid-Poly(L-lysin)-Konjugaten mit variierender Armzahl (n = 4, 8, 16) und Kettenlänge (NLys = 10, 50, 100) beschrieben. Die guten Absorptionseigenschaften und schlechten Fluoreszenzeigenschaften zeigen weder eine Abhängigkeit von der Sekundärstruktur der Poly(L-lysin)-Arme noch von deren Zahl oder Kettenlänge. Der dritte Teil der Arbeit handelt von amin- (Fmoc-, TFAA- oder Z-) geschützten L-Lysindendrone bis zur dritten Generation, welche durch Verknüpfung der Carboxylfunktion der Dendrone mit der Amingruppe von Vinylbenzylamin in Makromonomere überführt werden. Das Polymerisationsverhalten der Makromonomere wird in Abhängigkeit der Dendrongeneration und der Monomerkonzentration zu Beginn der Polymerisation untersucht. Anhand von AFM-Aufnahmen kann nachgewiesen werden, dass das Polystyrolrückgrat der dendronisierten Polymere der ersten Z-geschützten Generation eine Streckung erfährt.

Synthese von amphiphilen Bürstenpolymeren mit Kern-Schale-Architektur und Untersuchungen zur Verkapselung von hydrophilen Modellsubstanzen

Die dieser Arbeit zugrundeliegenden Nanopartikel wurden mittels der Makromonomer-Strategie aus polymerisierbaren Polystyrol-b-Poly(2-vinylpyridin) Oligomeren dargestellt. Die Bürstenpolymere besitzen eine polare PS-Schale und einen polaren Kern (P2VP), dessen Polarität durch Quaternisierung deutlich erhöht werden kann. Die Bürstenpolymere weisen bei Molmassen um 400 - 800 kg/mol einen Teilchendurchmesser von ca. 15 - 20 nm auf. Die Nanopartikel eignen sich dazu, hydrophile Farbstoffe in unpolaren Lösungsmitteln zu solubilisieren. Durch spektroskopische Untersuchungen wurden in Abhängigkeit der chemischen Struktur und der Bürstenpolymere Beladungsgrade von über 1 g Farbstoff pro Gramm Polymer ermittelt. Die Beladung der Nanopartikel folgt hierbei einer nichttrivialen Kinetik, was möglicherweise durch eine wasserinduzierte Überstrukturbildung während der Beladung bedingt ist. Mittels isothermer Titrationskalorimetrie konnten die Wechselwirkungen zwischen polymeren Substrat und niedermolekularen Liganden genauer charakterisiert werden. Teilweise werden hierbei zweistufige Titrationsverläufe und "überstöchiometrische" Beladung der Bürstenpolymere beobachtet. Den Hauptbeitrag zur Wechselwirkung liefert hierbei die exotherme Wechselwirkung zwischen basischen Polymer und saurem Farbstoff. Die hohe Farbstoffbeladung führt zur deutlichen Vergrößerung der einzelnen Nanopartikel, was sowohl in Lösung durch Lichtstreu-Techniken als auch auf Oberflächen mit Hilfe des AFM zu beobachten ist. Durch Untersuchungen mit der analytischen Ultrazentrifuge konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass sich der eingelagerte Farbstoff in einem Polaritäts-abhängigen Gleichgewicht mit der Umgebung steht, er somit auch wieder aus den Nanopartikeln freigesetzt werden kann. Darüberhinaus wurden im Rahmen der Arbeit erste Erfolge bei der Synthese von wasserlöslichen Nanopartikeln mit Poly(2-vinylpyridin)-Kern erzielt. Als hierfür geeignet stellte sich eine Synthesestrategie heraus, bei der zunächst ein Bürstenpolymer mit P2VP-Seitenketten dargestellt und dieses anschließend mit geeignet funktionalisierten Polyethylenoxid-Ketten zum Kern-Schale Teilchen umgesetzt wurde. Neben Untersuchungen zum Mizellisierungsverhalten von PEO-b-P2VP Makromonomeren wurden deren Aggregate in Wasser hinsichtlich ihrer Zelltoxizität durch in-vitro Experimente an C26-Mäusekarzinom-Zellen charakterisiert. Die extrem geringe Toxizität macht das PEO-P2VP System zu einem potentiellen Kandidaten für drug-delivery Anwendungen. Besonders die pH-abhängige Löslichkeitsänderung des Poly(2-vinylpyridin) erscheint hierbei besonders interessant.

Interplay of pi–pi stacking and hydrogen bonding in conjugated supramolecular systems studied by solid-state NMR

In this work supramolecular organic systems based on rigid pi-conjugated building blocks and flexible side chains were studied via solid-state NMR spectroscopy. Specifically, these studies focussed on phenylene ethynylene based macrocycles, polymer systems including polythiophenes, and rod-coil copolymers of oligo(p-benzamide) and poly(ethylene glycol). All systems were studied in terms of the local order and mobility. The central topic of this dissertation was to elucidate the role of the flexible side chains in interplay of different non-covalent interactions, like pi-pi-stacking and hydrogen bonding.Combining the results of this work, it can be concluded that the ratio of the rigid block and the attached alkyl side chains can be crucial for the design of an ordered pi-conjugated supramolecular system. Through alkyl side chains, it is also possible to introduce liquid-crystalline phases in the system, which can foster the local order of the system. Moreover in the studied system longer, unbranched alkyl side chains are better suited to stabilize the corresponding aggregation than shorter, branched ones.The combination of non-covalent interactions such as pi-pi-stacking and hydrogen bonding play an important role for structure formation. However, the effect of pi-pi-stacking interaction is much weaker than the effect of hydrogen bonding and is only observed in systems with a suitable local order. Hence, they are often not strong enough to control the local order. In contrast, hydrogen bonds predominantly influence the structural organization and packing. In comparison the size of the alkyl side chains is only of minor importance. The suppression of certain hydrogen bonds can lead to completely different structures and can induce a specific aggregation behavior. Thus, for the design of a supramolecular ordered system the presence of hydrogen bonding efficiently stabilizes the corresponding structure, but the ratio of hydrogen bond forming groups should be kept low to be able to influence the structure selectively.

Inorganic-organic hybrid polymers: Solution-processible coating materials for defined surface functionalization

A new class of inorganic-organic hybrid polymers could successfully been prepared by the combination of different polymerization techniques. The access to a broad range of organic polymers incorporated into the hybrid polymer was realized using two independent approaches.rnIn the first approach a functional poly(silsesquioxane) (PSSQ) network was pre-formed, which was capable to initiate a controlled radical polymerization to graft organic vinyl-type monomers from the PSSQ precursor. As controlled radical polymerization techniques atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP), as well as reversible addition fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization could be used after defined tuning of the PSSQ precursor either toward a PSSQ macro-initiator or to a PSSQ macro-chain-transfer-agent. The polymerization pathway, consisting of polycondensation of trialkoxy-silanes followed by grafting-from polymerization of different monomers, allowed synthesis of various functional hybrid polymers. A controlled synthesis of the PSSQ precursors could successfully be performed using a microreactor setup; the molecular weight could be adjusted easily while the polydispersity index could be decreased well below 2.rnThe second approach aimed to incorporate differently derived organic polymers. As examples, polycarbonate and poly(ethylene glycol) were end-group-modified using trialkoxysilanes. After end-group-functionalization these organic polymers could be incorporated into a PSSQ network.rnThese different hybrid polymers showed extraordinary coating abilities. All polymers could be processed from solution by spin-coating or dip-coating. The high amount of reactive silanol moieties in the PSSQ part could be cross-linked after application by annealing at 130° for 1h. Not only cross-linking of the whole film was achieved, which resulted in mechanical interlocking with the substrate, also chemical bonds to metal or metal oxide surfaces were formed. All coating materials showed high stability and adhesion onto various underlying materials, reaching from metals (like steel or gold) and metal oxides (like glass) to plastics (like polycarbonate or polytetrafluoroethylene).rnAs the material and the synthetic pathway were very tolerant toward different functionalities, various functional monomers could be incorporated in the final coating material. The incorporation of N-isopropylacrylamide yielded in temperature-responsive surface coatings, whereas the incorporation of redox-active monomers allowed the preparation of semi-conductive coatings, capable to produce smooth hole-injection layers on transparent conductive electrodes used in optoelectronic devices.rnThe range of possible applications could be increased tremendously by incorporation of reactive monomers, capable to undergo fast and quantitative conversions by polymer-analogous reactions. For example, grafting active esters from a PSSQ precursor yielded a reactive surface coating after application onto numerous substrates. Just by dipping the coated substrate into a solution of a functionalized amine, the desired function could be immobilized at the interface as well as throughout the whole film. The obtained reactive surface coatings could be used as basis for different functional coatings for various applications. The conversion with specifically tuned amines yielded in surfaces with adjustable wetting behaviors, switchable wetting behaviors or as recognition element for surface-oriented bio-analytical devices. The combination of hybrid materials with orthogonal reactivities allowed for the first time the preparation of multi-reactive surfaces which could be functionalized sequentially with defined fractions of different groups at the interface. rnThe introduced concept to synthesis functional hybrid polymers unifies the main requirements on an ideal coating material. Strong adhesion on a wide range of underlying materials was achieved by secondary condensation of the PSSQ part, whereas the organic part allowed incorporation of various functionalities. Thus, a flexible platform to create functional and reactive surface coatings was achieved, which could be applied to different substrates. rn

Multifunctional magnetically loaded polyorganosiloxane nanocomposites for biomedical applications

For the last few decades, the interest in functional nanomaterials is steadily increasing. Especially, in biomedicine the range of possible applications of multifunctional nanoparticles including dye-labeled makers and drug loaded carrier systems is extraordinary large. The incorporation of magnetic nanoparticles allows for an additional magnetic detection and manipulation. One promising system on the way to multifunctional nanomaterials is the polyorganosiloxane system. Via polycondensation of silan monomers in aqueous dispersion polyorganosiloxane nanoparticles with particle diameter between 10 and 150 nm can be synthesized. The versatile silane chemistry allows for the design of multifunctional network structures. In this work, hydrophilic iron oxide nanoparticles could be encapsulated into the polymeric particles in a highly efficient process whereat the superparamagnetic nature of the inorganic particles was restrained. The influence of different sized particles as well as the amount of the incorporated material was investigated. Using a core-shell architecture, controlled core and surface modifications could be achieved. An effective fluorescent labeling was performed via incorporation of dye-labeled monomers. Additionally, a hydrophilic surface modification was carried out via a grafting onto process of poly(ethylene glycol). Individual core and surface functionalization was achieved and the influence of the modification on the efficiency of the magnetic loading was tested. The applicability of the multifunctional particles in biological systems was proved via cellular uptake and toxicity testings. Furthermore, biofunctionalized particles were synthesized by EDC coupling using biotin and insulin.rnrn

Investigation of the lithium ion mobility in cyclic model compounds and their ion conducting properties

Efficient energy storage and conversion is playing a key role in overcoming the present and future challenges in energy supply. Batteries provide portable, electrochemical storage of green energy sources and potentially allow for a reduction of the dependence on fossil fuels, which is of great importance with respect to the issue of global warming. In view of both, energy density and energy drain, rechargeable lithium ion batteries outperform other present accumulator systems. However, despite great efforts over the last decades, the ideal electrolyte in terms of key characteristics such as capacity, cycle life, and most important reliable safety, has not yet been identified. rnrnSteps ahead in lithium ion battery technology require a fundamental understanding of lithium ion transport, salt association, and ion solvation within the electrolyte. Indeed, well-defined model compounds allow for systematic studies of molecular ion transport. Thus, in the present work, based on the concept of ‘immobilizing’ ion solvents, three main series with a cyclotriphosphazene (CTP), hexaphenylbenzene (HBP), and tetramethylcyclotetrasiloxane (TMS) scaffold were prepared. Lithium ion solvents, among others ethylene carbonate (EC), which has proven to fulfill together with pro-pylene carbonate safety and market concerns in commercial lithium ion batteries, were attached to the different cores via alkyl spacers of variable length.rnrnAll model compounds were fully characterized, pure and thermally stable up to at least 235 °C, covering the requested broad range of glass transition temperatures from -78.1 °C up to +6.2 °C. While the CTP models tend to rearrange at elevated temperatures over time, which questions the general stability of alkoxide related (poly)phosphazenes, both, the HPB and CTP based models show no evidence of core stacking. In particular the CTP derivatives represent good solvents for various lithium salts, exhibiting no significant differences in the ionic conductivity σ_dc and thus indicating comparable salt dissociation and rather independent motion of cations and ions.rnrnIn general, temperature-dependent bulk ionic conductivities investigated via impedance spectroscopy follow a William-Landel-Ferry (WLF) type behavior. Modifications of the alkyl spacer length were shown to influence ionic conductivities only in combination to changes in glass transition temperatures. Though the glass transition temperatures of the blends are low, their conductivities are only in the range of typical polymer electrolytes. The highest σ_dc obtained at ambient temperatures was 6.0 x 10-6 S•cm-1, strongly suggesting a rather tight coordination of the lithium ions to the solvating 2-oxo-1,3-dioxolane moieties, supported by the increased σ_dc values for the oligo(ethylene oxide) based analogues.rnrnFurther insights into the mechanism of lithium ion dynamics were derived from 7Li and 13C Solid- State NMR investigations. While localized ion motion was probed by i.e. 7Li spin-lattice relaxation measurements with apparent activation energies E_a of 20 to 40 kJ/mol, long-range macroscopic transport was monitored by Pulsed-Field Gradient (PFG) NMR, providing an E_a of 61 kJ/mol. The latter is in good agreement with the values determined from bulk conductivity data, indicating the major contribution of ion transport was only detected by PFG NMR. However, the μm-diffusion is rather slow, emphasizing the strong lithium coordination to the carbonyl oxygens, which hampers sufficient ion conductivities and suggests exploring ‘softer’ solvating moieties in future electrolytes.rn

Photo-induced reversible assembly of colloidal polymer nanoparticles

Polymer nanoparticles functionalized on the surface with photo-responsive labels were synthesized. In a first synthetic step, polystyrene was copolymerized with the cross-linker divinylbenzene and poly(ethylene glycol) acrylate in a miniemulsion, to produce nano-sized spheres (~ 60 nm radius) with terminal hydroxyl groups, which were functionalized in a subsequent synthetic step with photo-responsive labels. For this purpose, two photo-active molecular structures were separately used: anthracene, which is well known to form covalently bonded dimers upon photo-excitation; and pyrene, which only forms short lived excited state dimers (excimers). Acid derivatives of these labels (9-anthracene carboxylic acid and 1-pyrene butyric acid) were bonded to the hydroxyl terminal groups of the nanoparticles through an esterification reaction, via the intermediate formation of the corresponding acid chloride.rnThe obtained labeled nanoparticles appeared to be highly hydrophobic structures. They formed lyophobic suspensions in water, which after analysis by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and ultramicroscopic particle tracking, appeared to equilibrate as a collection of singly dispersed nanoparticles, together with a few nanoparticle aggregates. The relative amount of aggregates decreased with increasing amounts of the surfactant sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), thus confirming that aggregation is an equilibrated state resulting from lyophobicity. The formation of such aggregates was corroborated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The photo-irradiation of the lyophobic aqueous suspensions of anthracene labeled nanoparticles (An-NP) resulted in the formation of higher aggregates, as evidenced by DLS and ultramicroscopy. The obtained state of aggregation could be reverted by sonication. The possibility to re-aggregate the system in subsequent photo-excitation and sonication cycles was established. Likewise, the photo-irradiation of lyophobic aqueous suspensions of pyrene-labeled nanoparticles (Py-NP) resulted in the formation of higher aggregates, as evidenced by DLS and ultramicroscopy. These appeared to remain aggregated due to hydrophobic interactions. This system could also be re-dispersed by sonication and re-aggregated in subsequent cycles of photo-excitation and sonication.

Hyperbranched polyglycerols as building blocks for complex amphiphilic structures: synthesis, characterization and applications

Among hyperbranched polymers, polyglycerol is one of the most promising and commonly used macromolecules due to its biocompatibility and versatility. However, the synthesis of high molecular weight polyglycerols still involves many intricacies and has only been understood to a limited extent. Furthermore, only few complex structures like star or block copolymers incorporating polyglycerol have been realized so far. Particularly biocompatible block copolymers are considered promising candidates for biomedical applications.rnThe scope of this thesis was the enhancement of the synthetic process leading to polyglycerol derivatives which implies improved molecular weight control for a broad molecular weight range as well as the assembly of more complex structures like amphiphilic block copolymers. Further insight into the relation between reaction solvent, degree of deprotonation during the ring-opening multibranching polymerization of glycidol and the characteristics of the obtained polymers were achieved within the scope of this work. Based on these results, a novel concept for the preparation of hyperbranched polyglycerols with molecular weights up to 20,000 g/mol was developed, applying a two step synthesis pathway. Starting from a partially deprotonated TMP core, low molecular weight hb-PGs were prepared using the known synthetic protocol that has been established since the late 1990ies. In a subsequent reaction sequence, these well defined polymers were used as hyperbranched macroinitiator cores in order to obtain high molecular weight hb-PGs with remarkably low polydispersity (Mw/Mn < 1.8). Molecular weight control was shown to be excellent and undesired low molecular weight side products were absent. Furthermore, the technique of continuous spin fractionation has been discovered as an efficient method for polyglycerol work-up to remove quantitatively residual monomer- and oligomer traces from hb-PG compositions to result in samples with significantly reduced polydispersities. Based on these results the synthesis of amphiphilic block copolymers containing hydrophilic hyperbranched polyglycerol blocks and linear, apolar poly(propylene oxide) blocks has been significantly improved and augmented to hb-PG-b-l-PPO-b-hb-PG ABA block copolymers. The influence of different polyglycerol-based amphiphiles on the fibril formation was studied by Thioflavin T Fluorescence showing remarkable increasing lag times which is promising in order to enhance the stability of this protein. In addition the first synthesis of poly(glyceryl glycerols) (PGG), introducing a new solketyl glycidyl ether monomer (IGG) was shown. It was furthermore demonstrated that core-functional carbosilane wedges allow application in block copolymer synthesis. Bisglycidolized amine functional polymers were successfully employed as macroinitiators for glycidol polymerization. This resulted in the first example of amphiphilic hyperbranched-hyperbranched polymer structures. Finally, it has been shown that the previously reported synthetic pathway to carboxylated hyperbranched polyglycerol polyelectrolytes can also be applied for the amphiphilic linear-hyperbranched block copolymers. These novel biocompatible and highly amphiphilic polyelectrolytes offer great potential for further investigations. rnrn

Transport of nanoparticles into polymersomes : a minimal model system of particles passage through biological membranes

This thesis focuses on the design and characterization of a novel, artificial minimal model membrane system with chosen physical parameters to mimic a nanoparticle uptake process driven exclusively by adhesion and softness of the bilayer. The realization is based on polymersomes composed of poly(dimethylsiloxane)-b-poly(2-methyloxazoline) (PMDS-b-PMOXA) and nanoscopic colloidal particles (polystyrene, silica), and the utilization of powerful characterization techniques. rnPDMS-b-PMOXA polymersomes with a radius, Rh ~100 nm, a size polydispersity, PD = 1.1 and a membrane thickness, h = 16 nm, were prepared using the film rehydratation method. Due to the suitable mechanical properties (Young’s modulus of ~17 MPa and a bending modulus of ~7⋅10-8 J) along with the long-term stability and the modifiability, these kind of polymersomes can be used as model membranes to study physical and physicochemical aspects of transmembrane transport of nanoparticles. A combination of photon (PCS) and fluorescence (FCS) correlation spectroscopies optimizes species selectivity, necessary for a unique internalization study encompassing two main efforts. rnFor the proof of concepts, the first effort focused on the interaction of nanoparticles (Rh NP SiO2 = 14 nm, Rh NP PS = 16 nm; cNP = 0.1 gL-1) and polymersomes (Rh P = 112 nm; cP = 0.045 gL-1) with fixed size and concentration. Identification of a modified form factor of the polymersome entities, selectively seen in the PCS experiment, enabled a precise monitor and quantitative description of the incorporation process. Combining PCS and FCS led to the estimation of the incorporated particles per polymersome (about 8 in the examined system) and the development of an appropriate methodology for the kinetics and dynamics of the internalization process. rnThe second effort aimed at the establishment of the necessary phenomenology to facilitate comparison with theories. The size and concentration of the nanoparticles were chosen as the most important system variables (Rh NP = 14 - 57 nm; cNP = 0.05 - 0.2 gL-1). It was revealed that the incorporation process could be controlled to a significant extent by changing the nanoparticles size and concentration. Average number of 7 up to 11 NPs with Rh NP = 14 nm and 3 up to 6 NPs with Rh NP = 25 nm can be internalized into the present polymersomes by changing initial nanoparticles concentration in the range 0.1- 0.2 gL-1. Rapid internalization of the particles by polymersomes is observed only above a critical threshold particles concentration, dependent on the nanoparticle size. rnWith regard possible pathways for the particle uptake, cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) has revealed two different incorporation mechanisms depending on the size of the involved nanoparticles: cooperative incorporation of nanoparticles groups or single nanoparticles incorporation. Conditions for nanoparticle uptake and controlled filling of polymersomes were presented. rnIn the framework of this thesis, the experimental observation of transmembrane transport of spherical PS and SiO2 NPs into polymersomes via an internalization process was reported and examined quantitatively for the first time. rnIn a summary the work performed in frames of this thesis might have significant impact on cell model systems’ development and thus improved understanding of transmembrane transport processes. The present experimental findings help create the missing phenomenology necessary for a detailed understanding of a phenomenon with great relevance in transmembrane transport. The fact that transmembrane transport of nanoparticles can be performed by artificial model system without any additional stimuli has a fundamental impact on the understanding, not only of the nanoparticle invagination process but also of the interaction of nanoparticles with biological as well as polymeric membranes. rn

Functionalization and characterization of magnetic nanoparticles for biomedical applications

Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Oberflächenfunktionalisierung von MnO Nanopartikeln (NP). Durch die Verwendung und Verbesserung verschiedener Polymere durch die Einbindung von Poly (Ethylen Glycol) (PEG), gelang es, die Löslichkeit dieser Nanopartikel in wässrigen Lösungen sowie in Körperflüssigkeiten zu erhöhen. Zusätzlich konnten diese Nanopartikel deutlich besser steril filtriert werden und zeigten eine erhöhte Aktivität alsrnKontrastmittel im MRT. Vorläufige Ergebnisse für die Verwendung von Silika als Schutzhülle für MnO NP werden ebenfalls kurz erläutert. Die verwendeten Polymere besaßen dabei zugängliche Aminogruppen, die eine weitere Funktionalisierung durch Bio-aktiver Gruppen ermöglichte. Der Nachweis einer erfolgreichen Bindung durch verschiedene Methoden wie SDS-PAGE, Western- und Northern Blot sowie die Verwendung unterschiedlicher FluoreszenzMessungen wird ebenfalls diskutiert. MnO NP und anderer magnetischer NP werden weiterhin auf ihr toxisches Verhalten gegenüber Caki1 und HeLa Zellen getestet. Dabei zeigte sich, dass MnO NP, im Gegensatz zu einigen Kupferoxiden, quasi nicht toxisch waren und das Proliferationsverhalten dieser Zellen quasi nicht beeinflussten. Weiterhin wurde ein Fluoreszenzfarbstoff, konkret Protoporphyrin IX, an die Oberfläche von MnO NP angebracht.Diese konnten dann erfolgreich als Kontrastmittel in der MRT verwendet werden und zeigten vielversprechende Ergebnisse für die Photodynamische Therapie. Desweiteren wird die Synthese des Antikörpers gegen p53 ausführlich erläutert. Dabei wurde genau darauf geachtet,dass dieser Antikörper dann an MnO NP gebunden werden kann.

Synthese und Charakterisierung von HPMA-stabilisierten Kolloiden sowie deren Evaluierung in vitro und in vivo

Nanodimensionale Wirkstoff-Trägersysteme sind in der Lage, sowohl die Bioverfügbarkeit als auch das pharmakokinetische Profil von Wirkstoffen drastisch zu verbessern. Hauptgründe dafür sind eine erhöhte Plasma-Halbwertszeit durch die größenbedingte verminderte renale Ausscheidung und eine gesteigerte Anreicherung im Tumorgewebe durch den EPR-Effekt. Diese Arbeit beschreibt die Synthese und Entwicklung neuer kolloidaler Wirkstoff-Trägersysteme, welche biokompatibel, teilweise bioabbaubar und funktionalisierbar sind. Ein Fluoreszenzfarbstoff wurde als hydrophobes Wirkstoffmodell eingekapselt. Wohldefinierte, eng verteilte und funktionalisierbare HPMA-basierte Block- und statistische Copolymere unterschiedlicher Molekulargewichte (10-25 kDa) und hydrophiler/hydrophober Zusammensetzung (10-50 mol%) wurden mittels RAFT- Polymerisation in Kombination mit dem Reaktivesteransatz hergestellt und in Miniemulsionsprozesse eingesetzt, um ihre Stabilisierungseffizienz zu untersuchen. Dabei zeigte sich, dass die kleineren Copolymere (10 kDa) mit einem Einbau von 10 mol% LMA, sowohl im Modellsystem Polystyrol, als auch im bioabbaubaren PDLLA-System, besonders geeignet sind und ergaben monodisperse Kolloide im Größenbereich von 100 bis 300 nm. Die kolloidalen Systeme zeigten keine Wirkung auf die Zellviabilität. In Folge dessen wurde das Aggregationsverhalten in humanem Blutserum mittels DLS untersucht, wobei keine Interaktion mit Blutbestandteilen festgestellt werden konnte. Zellaufnahmestudien wurden an HeLa-Zellen durchgeführt, um das Schicksal der Kolloide in vitro zu untersuchen. Dabei wurden Kernmaterial, Hülle und das hydrophobe Wirkstoffmodell durch unterschiedliche Fluoreszenzmarkierung getrennt betrachtet. Das hydrophobe Wirkstoffmodell wurde allein durch Interaktion der Kolloide mit den Zellen übertragen, was für eine diffusionsbedingte, initiale, aber unspezifische Freisetzung spricht. Eine solche Freisetzungskinetik kann durch Verwendung von Nitroglycerin, als vasodilatierender Wirkstoff mit geringer unspezifischer Wirkung, ausgenutzt werden, um den EPR-Effekt zu unterstützen. Die Aufnahme des Partikels hingegen geschieht zeitverzögert. Das Schicksal der Kolloide (sowohl des Kern- und desrnHüllmaterials) wurde durch doppelte Fluoreszenzmarkierung untersucht. Dabei kam es zu einer intrazellulären Ablösung der stabilisierenden Block-Copolymere zwischen 8 und 24 h. Nach Aufklärung der Aufnahme- und Freisetzungskinetiken wurde nun die Körperverteilung der PS- und PDLLA-Kolloide nach 18F-Markierung mittels PET und ex vivo-Biodistributiosstudien untersucht. Dabei hatte das Kernmaterial einen Einfluss auf die Körperverteilung. PET-Studien in Mäusen zeigten, dass die stabilisierenden Block-Copolymere beider Kolloide ein starkes Signal in der Niere geben, wobei das der PS-Kolloide weiter ausgeprägt war. Darüber hinaus war eine Anreicherung dieser in Lunge, Leber und Milz festzustellen. Die Verdrängung der stabilisierenden Polymere durch die Interaktion mit Blutbestandteilen erklärt dabei das erhöhte Nieren- und Blasensignal der PS- Kolloide. Das Anreicherungsmuster der PDLLA-Kolloide hingegen zeigte neben der Nierenakkumulation eine erhöhte Blutaktivität und somit die gewünschten langzirkulierenden Eigenschaften. Diese Ergebnisse konnten auch mittels ex vivo- Biodistributionsstudien bestätigt werden. Um die Tumoranreicherung weiter zu verbessern wurde die Verwendung von Folat als Erkennungsstruktur am einfachen HPMA-Polymer untersucht. Die Konjugate zeigten eine erhöhte Anreicherung im Vergleich zu den Polymeren ohne Erkennungsstrukturen. Blockadestudien bestätigten die Selektivität der Anreicherung. Diese Daten zeigen das Potential der Folat-Erkennungsstruktur in vivo innerhalb kurzer Zeitfenster, welche nun auf kolloidale Systeme übertragen werden kann.