Performance evaluation of asphalt pavements using the Incremental-Recursive procedure of the Mechanistic-Empirical design software CalME

Il concetto di “sostenibilità” si riferisce allo sviluppo dei sistemi umani attraverso il più piccolo impatto possibile sul sistema ambientale. Le opere che si inseriscono bene nel contesto ambientale circostante e le pratiche che rispettano le risorse in maniera tale da permettere una crescita e uno sviluppo a lungo termine senza impattare sull’ambiente sono indispensabili in una società moderna. I progressi passati, presenti e futuri che hanno reso i conglomerati bituminosi materiali sostenibili dal punto di vista ambientale sono particolarmente importanti data la grande quantità di conglomerato usato annualmente in Europa e negli Stati Uniti. I produttori di bitume e di conglomerato bituminoso stanno sviluppando tecniche innovative per ridurre l’impatto ambientale senza compromettere le prestazioni meccaniche finali. Un conglomerato bituminoso ad “alta lavorabilità” (WMA), pur sviluppando le stesse caratteristiche meccaniche, richiede un temperatura di produzione minore rispetto a quella di un tradizionale conglomerato bituminoso a caldo (HMA). L’abbassamento della temperature di produzione riduce le emissioni nocive. Questo migliora le condizioni dei lavoratori ed è orientato verso uno sviluppo sostenibile. L’obbiettivo principale di questa tesi di laurea è quello di dimostrare il duplice valore sia dal punto di vista dell’eco-compatibilità sia dal punto di vista meccanico di questi conglomerati bituminosi ad “alta lavorabilità”. In particolare in questa tesi di laurea è stato studiato uno SMA ad “alta lavorabilità” (PGGWMA). L’uso di materiali a basso impatto ambientale è la prima fase verso un progetto ecocompatibile ma non può che essere il punto di partenza. L’approccio ecocompatibile deve essere esteso anche ai metodi di progetto e alla caratterizzazione di laboratorio dei materiali perché solo in questo modo è possibile ricavare le massime potenzialità dai materiali usati. Un’appropriata caratterizzazione del conglomerato bituminoso è fondamentale e necessaria per una realistica previsione delle performance di una pavimentazione stradale. La caratterizzazione volumetrica (Mix Design) e meccanica (Deformazioni Permanenti e Comportamento a fatica) di un conglomerato bituminoso è una fase importante. Inoltre, al fine di utilizzare correttamente i materiali, un metodo di progetto avanzato ed efficiente, come quello rappresentato da un approccio Empirico-Meccanicistico (ME), deve essere utilizzato. Una procedura di progetto Empirico-Meccanicistica consiste di un modello strutturale capace di prevedere gli stati di tensione e deformazione all’interno della pavimentazione sotto l’azione del traffico e in funzione delle condizioni atmosferiche e di modelli empirici, calibrati sul comportamento dei materiali, che collegano la risposta strutturale alle performance della pavimentazione. Nel 1996 in California, per poter effettivamente sfruttare i benefici dei continui progressi nel campo delle pavimentazioni stradali, fu iniziato un estensivo progetto di ricerca mirato allo sviluppo dei metodi di progetto Empirico - Meccanicistici per le pavimentazioni stradali. Il risultato finale fu la prima versione del software CalME che fornisce all’utente tre approcci diversi di l’analisi e progetto: un approccio Empirico, uno Empirico - Meccanicistico classico e un approccio Empirico - Meccanicistico Incrementale - Ricorsivo. Questo tesi di laurea si concentra sulla procedura Incrementale - Ricorsiva del software CalME, basata su modelli di danno per quanto riguarda la fatica e l’accumulo di deformazioni di taglio dai quali dipendono rispettivamente la fessurazione superficiale e le deformazioni permanenti nella pavimentazione. Tale procedura funziona per incrementi temporali successivi e, usando i risultati di ogni incremento temporale, ricorsivamente, come input dell’incremento temporale successivo, prevede le condizioni di una pavimentazione stradale per quanto riguarda il modulo complesso dei diversi strati, le fessurazioni superficiali dovute alla fatica, le deformazioni permanenti e la rugosità superficiale. Al fine di verificare le propreità meccaniche del PGGWMA e le reciproche relazioni in termini di danno a fatica e deformazioni permanenti tra strato superficiale e struttura della pavimentazione per fissate condizioni ambientali e di traffico, è stata usata la procedura Incrementale – Ricorsiva del software CalME. Il conglomerato bituminoso studiato (PGGWMA) è stato usato in una pavimentazione stradale come strato superficiale di 60 mm di spessore. Le performance della pavimentazione sono state confrontate a quelle della stessa pavimentazione in cui altri tipi di conglomerato bituminoso sono stati usati come strato superficiale. I tre tipi di conglomerato bituminoso usati come termini di paragone sono stati: un conglomerato bituminoso ad “alta lavorabilità” con granulometria “chiusa” non modificato (DGWMA), un conglomerato bituminoso modificato con polverino di gomma con granulometria “aperta” (GGRAC) e un conglomerato bituminoso non modificato con granulometria “chiusa” (DGAC). Nel Capitolo I è stato introdotto il problema del progetto ecocompatibile delle pavimentazioni stradali. I materiali a basso impatto ambientale come i conglomerati bituminosi ad “alta lavorabilità” e i conglomerati bituminosi modificati con polverino di gomma sono stati descritti in dettaglio. Inoltre è stata discussa l’importanza della caratterizzazione di laboratorio dei materiali e il valore di un metodo razionale di progetto delle pavimentazioni stradali. Nel Capitolo II sono stati descritti i diversi approcci progettuali utilizzabili con il CalME e in particolare è stata spiegata la procedura Incrementale – Ricorsiva. Nel Capitolo III sono state studiate le proprietà volumetriche e meccaniche del PGGWMA. Test di Fatica e di Deformazioni Permanenti, eseguiti rispettivamente con la macchina a fatica per flessione su quattro punti e il Simple Shear Test device (macchina di taglio semplice), sono stati effettuati su provini di conglomerato bituminoso e i risultati dei test sono stati riassunti. Attraverso questi dati di laboratorio, i parametri dei modelli della Master Curve, del danno a fatica e dell’accumulo di deformazioni di taglio usati nella procedura Incrementale – Ricorsiva del CalME sono stati valutati. Infine, nel Capitolo IV, sono stati presentati i risultati delle simulazioni di pavimentazioni stradali con diversi strati superficiali. Per ogni pavimentazione sono stati analizzati la fessurazione superficiale complessiva, le deformazioni permanenti complessive, il danno a fatica e la profondità delle deformazioni in ognuno degli stati legati.

Laboratory verification of predicted permanent deformation in asphalt materials following climate change.

In the past a change in temperature of 5°C most often occurred over intervals of thousands of years. According to estimates by the IPCC, in the XXI century is expected an increase in average temperatures in Europe between 1.8 and 4.0°C in the best case caused by emissions of carbon dioxide and other GHG from human activities. As well as on the environment and economic context, global warming will have effects even on road safety. Several studies have already shown how increasing temperature may cause a worsening of some types of road surface damages, especially rutting, a permanent deformation of the road structures consisting in the formation of a longitudinal depression in the wheelpath, mostly due to the rheological behavior of bitumen. This deformation evolves during the hot season because of the heating capacity of the asphalt layers, in fact, the road surface temperature is up to 24°C higher than air. In this thesis, through the use of Wheeltrack test, it was studied the behavior of some types of asphalt concrete mixtures subjected to fatigue testing at different temperatures. The objectives of this study are: to determine the strain variation of different bituminous mixture subjected to fatigue testing at different temperature conditions; to investigate the effect of aggregates, bitumen and mixtures’ characteristics on rutting. Samples were made in the laboratory mostly using an already prepared mixtures, the others preparing the asphalt concrete from the grading curve and bitumen content. The same procedure was performed for each specimen: preparation, compaction using the roller compactor, cooling and heating before the test. The tests were carried out at 40 - 50 - 60°C in order to obtain the evolution of deformation with temperature variation, except some mixtures for which the tests were carried out only at 50°C. In the elaboration of the results were considered testing parameters, component properties and the characteristics of the mixture. Among the testing parameters, temperature was varied for each sample. The mixtures responded to this variation with a different behavior (linear logarithmic and exponential) not directly correlated with the asphalt characteristics; the others parameters as load, passage frequency and test condition were kept constant. According to the results obtained, the main contribution to deformation is due to the type of binder used, it was found that the modified bitumen have a better response than the same mixtures containing traditional bitumen; to the porosity which affects negatively the behavior of the samples and to the homogeneity ceteris paribus. The granulometric composition did not seem to have interfered with the results. Overall has emerged at working temperature, a decisive importance of bitumen composition, than the other characteristics of the mixture, that tends to disappear with heating in favor of increased dependence of rutting resistance from the granulometric composition of the sample considered. In particular it is essential, rather than the mechanical characteristics of the binder, its chemical properties given by the polymeric modification. To confirm some considered results, the maximum bulk density and the air voids content were determined. Tests have been conducted in the laboratories of the Civil Engineering Department at NTNU in Trondheim according to European Standards.

Investigation on performance characteristics of dense graded hot mix asphalt with RAP and Crumb Rubber

The use of recycled materials in asphalt mixtures such as reclaimed asphalt pavements (RAP) have become widely accepted as a replacement for virgin asphalt binder or virgin aggregates. In this study, the RAP content was 30%, and CR additives were blended with the soft unmodified binder by using dry processes. The objective of this study was to investigate and evaluate the engineering properties of dry method application of crumb rubber influences on reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) mixtures. To evaluate the effect of rubber-bitumen interaction on the mixture’s mechanical properties, a laboratory investigation has been conducted on a range of dense graded and 30% RAP by dry process crumb rubber modified (CRM) asphalt mixtures containing 0% (control), 1% crumb rubber by the total aggregate mass. The experimental program in this research include the binder extraction for estimating the amount of aged binder in the both fine and coarse RAP material. Before extracting the binder the RAP sieve analysis, have been done to provide the Black grading curve. In continue after the binder extraction the material sieved again to providing the white curve. The comparison of Black and White curve indicated that there is a remarkable difference between the aggregate grading even for the fine RAP. The experimental program was continued by fabricating 12 specimens in different 4 types of mixtures. For the first group no RAP, no rejuvenator and no crumb rubber were used. For the second group 30% of virgin aggregates substituted by RAP material and the third group was similar to the second group just with 0.01% rejuvenator. the forth group was the group, which in that the specimens contain RAP, rejuvenator and crumb rubber. Finally the specimens were tested for Indirect tensile strength. The results indicated that the addition of crumb rubber increased the optimum amount of binder in the mixture with 30% RAP.

Investigation on performance characteristics of dense graded hot mix asphalt with RAP and crumb rubber

The objective of this study was to fundamentally characterize the laboratory performance of traditional hot mix asphalt (HMA) mixtures incorporating high RAP content and waste tire crumb rubber through their fundamental engineering properties. The nominal maximum aggregates size was chosen for this research was 12mm (considering the limitation of aggregate size for surface layer) and both coarse and fine aggregates are commonly used in Italy that were examined and analyzed in this study. On the other hand, the RAP plays an important role in reducing production costs and enhancing the environmentally sustainable pavements instead of using virgin materials in HMA. Particularly, this study has aimed to use 30% of RAP content (25% fine aggregate RAP and 5% coarse aggregate RAP) and 1% of CR additives by the total weight of aggregates for mix design. The mixture of aggregates, RAP and CR were blended with different amount of unmodified binder through dry processes. Generally, the main purposes of this study were investigating on capability of using RAP and CR in dense graded HMA and comparing the performance of rejuvenator in RAP with CR. In addition, based on the engineering analyses during the study, we were able compare the fundamental Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS) value of dense graded HMA and also mechanical characteristics in terms of Indirect Tensile Stiffness Modulus (ITSM). In order to get an extended comparable data, four groups of different mixtures such as conventional mixture with only virgin aggregates (DV), mixture with RAP (DR), mixture with RAP and rejuvenator (DRR), and mixture with RAP, rejuvenator, CR (DRRCr) were investigated in this research experimentally. Finally, the results of those tests indicated that the mixtures with RAP and CR had the high stiffness and less thermal sensitivity, while the mixture with virgin aggregates only had very low values in comparison.

Rheological Characterization of Bitumen and Asphalt including the effect of Added-recycled Material

This thesis evaluates the rheological behaviour of asphalt mixtures and the corresponding extracted binders from the mixtures containing different amounts of Reclaimed Asphalt (RA). Generally, the use of RA is limited to certain amounts. The study materials are Stone Mastic Asphalts including a control sample with 0% RA, and other samples with RA rates of 30%, 60% and 100%. Another set of studied mixtures are Asphalt Concretes (AC) types with again a control mix having 0% RA rate and the other mixtures designs containing 30%, 60% and 90% of reclaimed asphalt which also contain additives. In addition to the bitumen samples extracted from asphalt mixes, there are bitumen samples directly extracted from the original RA. To characterize the viscoelastic behaviour of the binders, Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) tests were conducted on bitumen specimens. The resulting influence of the RA content in the bituminous binders are illustrated through master curves, black diagrams and Cole-Cole plots with regressing these experimental data by the application of the analogical 2S2P1D and the analytical CA model. The advantage of the CA model is in its limited number of parameters and thus is a simple model to use. The 2S2P1D model is an analogical rheological model for the prediction of the linear viscoelastic properties of both asphalt binders and mixtures. In order to study the influence of RA on mixtures, the Indirect Tensile Test (ITT) has been conducted. The master curves of different mixture samples are evaluated by regressing the test data points to a sigmoidal function and subsequently by comparing the master curves, the influence of RA materials is studied. The thesis also focusses on the applicability and also differences of CA model and 2S2P1D model for bitumen samples and the sigmoid function for the mixtures and presents the influence of the RA rate on the investigated model parameters.

Laboratory study of grouted macadams impregnated with mine waste geopolymeric binder

A new type of pavement has been gaining popularity over the last few years in Europe. It comprises a surface course with a semi-flexible material that provides significant advantages in comparison to both concrete and conventional asphalt, having both rut resistance and a degree of flexibility. It also provides good protection against the ingress of water to the foundation, since it has an impermeable surface. The semi-flexible material, generally known as grouted macadam, comprises an open-graded asphalt skeleton with 25% to 35% voids into which a cementitious slurry is grouted. This hybrid mixture provides good rut resistance and a surface highly resistant to fuel and oil spillage. Such properties allow it to be used in industrial areas, airports and harbours, where those situations are frequently associated with heavy and slow traffic. Grouted Macadams constitute a poorly understood branch of pavement technology and have generally been relegated to a role in certain specialist pavements whose performance is predicted on purely empirical evidence. Therefore, the main objectives of this project were related to better understanding the properties of this type of material, in order to predict its performance more realistically and to design pavements incorporating grouted macadam more accurately. Based on a standard mix design, several variables were studied during this project in order to characterise the behaviour of Grouted Macadams in general, and the influence of those variables on the fundamental properties of the final mixture. In this research project, one approach was used to the design of pavements incorporating Grouted Macadams: a traditional design method, based on laboratory determined of the stiffness modulus and the compressive strength.

Micro-FEM models based on micro-CT reconstructions for the in vitro characterization of the elastic properties of trabecular bone tissue.

This master’s thesis describes the research done at the Medical Technology Laboratory (LTM) of the Rizzoli Orthopedic Institute (IOR, Bologna, Italy), which focused on the characterization of the elastic properties of the trabecular bone tissue, starting from october 2012 to present. The approach uses computed microtomography to characterize the architecture of trabecular bone specimens. With the information obtained from the scanner, specimen-specific models of trabecular bone are generated for the solution with the Finite Element Method (FEM). Along with the FEM modelling, mechanical tests are performed over the same reconstructed bone portions. From the linear-elastic stage of mechanical tests presented by experimental results, it is possible to estimate the mechanical properties of the trabecular bone tissue. After a brief introduction on the biomechanics of the trabecular bone (chapter 1) and on the characterization of the mechanics of its tissue using FEM models (chapter 2), the reliability analysis of an experimental procedure is explained (chapter 3), based on the high-scalable numerical solver ParFE. In chapter 4, the sensitivity analyses on two different parameters for micro-FEM model’s reconstruction are presented. Once the reliability of the modeling strategy has been shown, a recent layout for experimental test, developed in LTM, is presented (chapter 5). Moreover, the results of the application of the new layout are discussed, with a stress on the difficulties connected to it and observed during the tests. Finally, a prototype experimental layout for the measure of deformations in trabecular bone specimens is presented (chapter 6). This procedure is based on the Digital Image Correlation method and is currently under development in LTM.

Finite element modeling of flow/compression-induced deformation of alginate scaffolds for bone tissue engineering

Trauma or degenerative diseases such as osteonecrosis may determine bone loss whose recover is promised by a "tissue engineering“ approach. This strategy involves the use of stem cells, grown onboard of adequate biocompatible/bioreabsorbable hosting templates (usually defined as scaffolds) and cultured in specific dynamic environments afforded by differentiation-inducing actuators (usually defined as bioreactors) to produce implantable tissue constructs. The purpose of this thesis is to evaluate, by finite element modeling of flow/compression-induced deformation, alginate scaffolds intended for bone tissue engineering. This work was conducted at the Biomechanics Laboratory of the Institute of Biomedical and Neural Engineering of the Reykjavik University of Iceland. In this respect, Comsol Multiphysics 5.1 simulations were carried out to approximate the loads over alginate 3D matrices under perfusion, compression and perfusion+compression, when varyingalginate pore size and flow/compression regimen. The results of the simulations show that the shear forces in the matrix of the scaffold increase coherently with the increase in flow and load, and decrease with the increase of the pore size. Flow and load rates suggested for proper osteogenic cell differentiation are reported.