Caratterizzazione e calibrazione dei fotomoltiplicatori del sistema di veto di muoni per l'esperimento xenon1t

Alcune osservazioni sperimentali portano ad affermare che la maggior parte della massa dell'universo è costituita da un tipo di materia definita oscura, cioè materia che interagisce solo gravitazionalmente e debolmente. I candidati più promettenti sono tipicamente identificati con le WIMP (Weakly Interacting Massive Particle). L'esperimento XENON1T per la rivelazione di materia oscura, in fase di costruzione nei Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso, sfrutta uno spessore di 1.4 km di roccia schermante. Il rivelatore è una Time Projection Chamber contenente circa 2 tonnellate di xeno e avrà sensibilità per sezioni d’urto WIMP-nucleo spin-indipendent pari a circa 2x10-47 cm2 (per WIMP di massa 50 GeV/c2), due ordini di grandezza al di sotto degli attuali limiti. Per raggiungere tale sensibilità la TPC sarà inserita in una tank cilindrica riempita di acqua ultrapura, che fungerà sia da schermo passivo contro la radiazione esterna (gamma e neutroni di bassa energia), sia da veto per i muoni cosmici. I muoni possono infatti produrre neutroni di energia tale da raggiungere la TPC e simulare segnali tipici delle WIMP. Essi sono identificati per via della radiazione Cherenkov, emessa in seguito al loro passaggio in acqua, rivelata per mezzo di 84 fotomoltiplicatori (PMT) 8'' Hamamatsu R5912ASSY HQE. Lo studio delle prestazioni e delle caratteristiche dei PMT utilizzati nel sistema di veto di muoni sono lo scopo di questo lavoro di tesi. In particolare è stato preparato un opportuno setup per i test dei fotomoltiplicatori e sono state effettuate misure di guadagno, dark rate ed afterpulse. In una prima fase sono stati testati in aria 50 PMT presso la Sezione INFN di Bologna, nel periodo compreso tra Novembre 2012 e Marzo 2013 ed in una seconda fase sono stati testati in acqua 90 PMT presso i Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso, nel periodo compreso tra Aprile e Settembre 2013.

Feeding entrainment of locomotor activity and clock gene expression in Senegalese sole, Solea senegalensis

The present study was conducted to investigate the influence of restricted food access on Solea senegalensis behaviour and daily expression of clock genes in central (diencephalon and optic tectum) and pheripheral (liver) tissues. The Senegalese sole is a marine teleost fish belonging to the Class of Actinopterygii, Order Pleuronectiformes and Family Soleidae. Its geographical distribution in the Mediterranean sea is fairly broad, covering the south and east of the Iberian Peninsula, the North of Africa and Middle East until the coast of Turkey. From a commercial perspective Solea senegalensis has acquired in recent years, a key role in aquacolture industry of the Iberian Peninsula. The Senegalese sole is also acquiring an important relevance in chronobiological studies as the number of published works focused on the sole circadian system has increased in the last few years. The molecular mechanisms underlying sole circadian rhythms has also been explored recently, both in adults and developing sole. Moreover, the consideration of the Pleuronectiformes Order as one of the most evolved teleost groups make the Senegalese sole a species of high interest under a comparative and phylogenetic point of view. All these facts have reinforced the election of Senegalese sole as model species for the present study. The animals were kept under 12L:12D photoperiod conditions and divided into three experimental groups depending on the feeding time: fed at midlight (ML), middark (MD) or random (RND) times. Throughout the experiment, the existence of a daily activity rhythm and it synchronization to the light-dark and feeding cycles was checked. To this end locomotor activity was registred by means of two infrared photocells placed in pvc tube 10 cm below the water surface (upper photocell) and the other one was located 10 cm above the bottom of the tank (bottom photocell). The photocell were connected to a computer so that every time a fish interrupted the infrared light beam, it produced an output signal that was recorded. The number of light beam interruptions was stored every 10 minutes by specialized software for data acquisition.

A multi-objective genetic algorithm optimisation using variable speed pumps in water distribution systems

Due to its practical importance and inherent complexity, the optimisation of distribution networks for supplying drinking water has been the subject of extensive study for the past 30 years. The optimization is governed by sizing the pipes in the water distribution network (WDN) and / or optimises specific parts of the network such as pumps, tanks etc. or try to analyse and optimise the reliability of a WDN. In this thesis, the author has analysed two different WDNs (Anytown City and Cabrera city networks), trying to solve and optimise a multi-objective optimisation problem (MOOP). The main two objectives in both cases were the minimisation of Energy Cost (€) or Energy consumption (kWh), along with the total Number of pump switches (TNps) during a day. For this purpose, a decision support system generator for Multi-objective optimisation used. Its name is GANetXL and has been developed by the Center of Water System in the University of Exeter. GANetXL, works by calling the EPANET hydraulic solver, each time a hydraulic analysis has been fulfilled. The main algorithm used, was a second-generation algorithm for multi-objective optimisation called NSGA_II that gave us the Pareto fronts of each configuration. The first experiment that has been carried out was the network of Anytown city. It is a big network with a pump station of four fixed speed parallel pumps that are boosting the water dynamics. The main intervention was to change these pumps to new Variable speed driven pumps (VSDPs), by installing inverters capable to diverse their velocity during the day. Hence, it’s been achieved great Energy and cost savings along with minimisation in the number of pump switches. The results of the research are thoroughly illustrated in chapter 7, with comments and a variety of graphs and different configurations. The second experiment was about the network of Cabrera city. The smaller WDN had a unique FS pump in the system. The problem was the same as far as the optimisation process was concerned, thus, the minimisation of the energy consumption and in parallel the minimisation of TNps. The same optimisation tool has been used (GANetXL).The main scope was to carry out several and different experiments regarding a vast variety of configurations, using different pump (but this time keeping the FS mode), different tank levels, different pipe diameters and different emitters coefficient. All these different modes came up with a large number of results that were compared in the chapter 8. Concluding, it should be said that the optimisation of WDNs is a very interested field that has a vast space of options to deal with. This includes a large number of algorithms to choose from, different techniques and configurations to be made and different support system generators. The researcher has to be ready to “roam” between these choices, till a satisfactory result will convince him/her that has reached a good optimisation point.

Comparative study of the different models for the calculation of BLEVEs overpressure effects

The BLEVE, acronym for Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion, is one of the most dangerous accidents that can occur in pressure vessels. It can be defined as an explosion resulting from the failure of a vessel containing a pressure liquefied gas stored at a temperature significantly above its boiling point at atmospheric pressure. This phenomenon frequently appears when a vessel is engulfed by a fire: the heat causes the internal pressure to raise and the mechanical proprieties of the wall to decrease, with the consequent rupture of the tank and the instantaneous release of its whole content. After the breakage, the vapour outflows and expands and the liquid phase starts boiling due to the pressure drop. The formation and propagation of a distructive schock wave may occur, together with the ejection of fragments, the generation of a fireball if the stored fluid is flammable and immediately ignited or the atmospheric dispersion of a toxic cloud if the fluid contained inside the vessel is toxic. Despite the presence of many studies on the BLEVE mechanism, the exact causes and conditions of its occurrence are still elusive. In order to better understand this phenomenon, in the present study first of all the concept and definition of BLEVE are investigated. A historical analysis of the major events that have occurred over the past 60 years is described. A research of the principal causes of this event, including the analysis of the substances most frequently involved, is presented too. Afterwards a description of the main effects of BLEVEs is reported, focusing especially on the overpressure. Though the major aim of the present thesis is to contribute, with a comparative analysis, to the validation of the main models present in the literature for the calculation and prediction of the overpressure caused by BLEVEs. In line with this purpose, after a short overview of the available approaches, their ability to reproduce the trend of the overpressure is investigated. The overpressure calculated with the different models is compared with values deriving from events happened in the past and ad-hoc experiments, focusing the attention especially on medium and large scale phenomena. The ability of the models to consider different filling levels of the reservoir and different substances is analyzed too. The results of these calculations are extensively discussed. Finally some conclusive remarks are reported.

Hydraulic evaluation of the gyro electric wave energy converter

Motivation Thanks for a scholarship offered by ALma Mater Studiorum I could stay in Denmark for six months during which I could do physical tests on the device Gyro PTO at the Departmet of Civil Engineering of Aalborg University. Aim The goal of my thesis is an hydraulic evaluation of the device: Gyro PTO, a gyroscopic device for conversion of mechanical energy in ocean surface waves to electrical energy. The principle of the system is the application of the gyroscopic moment of flywheels equipped on a swing float excited by waves. The laboratory activities were carried out by: Morten Kramer, Jan Olsen, Irene Guaraldi, Morten Thøtt, Nikolaj Holk. The main purpose of the tests was to investigate the power absorption performance in irregular waves, but testing also included performance measures in regular waves and simple tests to get knowledge about characteristics of the device, which could facilitate the possibility of performing numerical simulations and optimizations. Methodology To generate the waves and measure the performance of the device a workstation was created in the laboratory. The workstation consist of four computers in each of wich there was a different program. Programs have been used : Awasys6, LabView, Wave lab, Motive optitrack, Matlab, Autocad Main Results Thanks to the obtained data with the tank testing was possible to make the process of wave analisys. We obtained significant wave height and period through a script Matlab and then the values of power produced, and energy efficiency of the device for two types of waves: regular and irregular. We also got results as: physical size, weight, inertia moments, hydrostatics, eigen periods, mooring stiffness, friction, hydrodynamic coefficients etc. We obtained significant parameters related to the prototype in the laboratory after which we scale up the results obtained for two future applications: one in Nissun Brending and in the North Sea. Conclusions The main conclusion on the testing is that more focus should be put into ensuring a stable and positive power output in a variety of wave conditions. In the irregular waves the power production was negative and therefore it does not make sense to scale up the results directly. The average measured capture width in the regular waves was 0.21 m. As the device width is 0.63 m this corresponds to a capture width ratio of: 0.21/0.63 * 100 = 33 %. Let’s assume that it is possible to get the device to produce as well in irregular waves under any wave conditions, and lets further assume that the yearly absorbed energy can be converted into electricity at a PTO-efficiency of 90 %. Under all those assumptions the results in table are found, i.e. a Nissum Bredning would produce 0.87 MWh/year and a North Sea device 85 MWh/year.

Biogas and bio-hydrogen: production and uses. A review

The first part of this essay aims at investigating the already available and promising technologies for the biogas and bio-hydrogen production from anaerobic digestion of different organic substrates. One strives to show all the peculiarities of this complicate process, such as continuity, number of stages, moisture, biomass preservation and rate of feeding. The main outcome of this part is the awareness of the huge amount of reactor configurations, each of which suitable for a few types of substrate and circumstance. Among the most remarkable results, one may consider first of all the wet continuous stirred tank reactors (CSTR), right to face the high waste production rate in urbanised and industrialised areas. Then, there is the up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor (UASB), aimed at the biomass preservation in case of highly heterogeneous feedstock, which can also be treated in a wise co-digestion scheme. On the other hand, smaller and scattered rural realities can be served by either wet low-rate digesters for homogeneous agricultural by-products (e.g. fixed-dome) or the cheap dry batch reactors for lignocellulose waste and energy crops (e.g. hybrid batch-UASB). The biological and technical aspects raised during the first chapters are later supported with bibliographic research on the important and multifarious large-scale applications the products of the anaerobic digestion may have. After the upgrading techniques, particular care was devoted to their importance as biofuels, highlighting a further and more flexible solution consisting in the reforming to syngas. Then, one shows the electricity generation and the associated heat conversion, stressing on the high potential of fuel cells (FC) as electricity converters. Last but not least, both the use as vehicle fuel and the injection into the gas pipes are considered as promising applications. The consideration of the still important issues of the bio-hydrogen management (e.g. storage and delivery) may lead to the conclusion that it would be far more challenging to implement than bio-methane, which can potentially “inherit” the assets of the similar fossil natural gas. Thanks to the gathered knowledge, one devotes a chapter to the energetic and financial study of a hybrid power system supplied by biogas and made of different pieces of equipment (natural gas thermocatalitic unit, molten carbonate fuel cell and combined-cycle gas turbine structure). A parallel analysis on a bio-methane-fed CCGT system is carried out in order to compare the two solutions. Both studies show that the apparent inconvenience of the hybrid system actually emphasises the importance of extending the computations to a broader reality, i.e. the upstream processes for the biofuel production and the environmental/social drawbacks due to fossil-derived emissions. Thanks to this “boundary widening”, one can realise the hidden benefits of the hybrid over the CCGT system.

Analisi comparativa dei modelli per gli incendi di liquidi infiammabili

I depositi di liquidi infiammabili sono stabilimenti industriali in cui avvengono spesso incendi di grandi dimensioni a causa degli ingenti quantitativi di sostanze infiammabili detenute. Gli incendi tipici dei liquidi infiammabili sono gli incendi di pozza in caso di rilascio del liquido al suolo e gli incendi di serbatoio in caso di ignizione del liquido all’interno del serbatoio stesso. Tali incendi hanno la potenzialità di danneggiare le apparecchiature limitrofe, determinandone il cedimento e dunque l’incremento delle dimensioni dell’incendio e dell’area di danno; tale fenomeno è detto effetto domino. Per la modellazione degli incendi sono disponibili diversi strumenti, divisibili essenzialmente in due categorie: modelli semplici, ovvero basati su correlazioni semi-empiriche e modelli avanzati, costituiti dai codici CFD. L’obiettivo principale del presente lavoro di tesi è il confronto tra le diverse tipologie di strumenti disponibili per la modellazione degli incendi di liquidi infiammabili. In particolare sono stati confrontati tra loro il codice FDS (Fire Dynamics Simulator), il metodo del TNO ed il modello per gli incendi di pozza incorporato nel software ALOHA. Il codice FDS è un modello avanzato, mentre il metodo del TNO ed il modello implementato nel software ALOHA sono modelli semplici appartenenti alla famiglia dei Solid Flame Models. La prima parte del presente lavoro di tesi è dedicata all’analisi delle caratteristiche e delle problematiche di sicurezza dei depositi di liquidi infiammabili, con specifico riferimento all’analisi storica. Nella seconda parte invece i tre metodi sopra citati sono applicati ad un parco serbatoi di liquidi infiammabili ed è effettuato il confronto dei risultati, anche ai fini di una valutazione preliminare dell’effetto domino. La tesi è articolata in 6 capitoli. Dopo il Capitolo 1, avente carattere introduttivo, nel Capitolo 2 vengono richiamati i principali concetti riguardanti gli incendi e vengono analizzate le caratteristiche e le problematiche di sicurezza dei depositi di liquidi infiammabili. Il Capitolo 3 è dedicato alla discussione delle caratteristiche degli incendi di pozza, alla presentazione delle tipologie di strumenti a disposizione per la loro modellazione ed alla descrizione di dettaglio dei modelli utilizzati nel presente lavoro di tesi. Il Capitolo 4 contiene la presentazione del caso di studio. Nel Capitolo 5, che costituisce il cuore del lavoro, i modelli descritti sono applicati al caso di studio, con un’approfondita discussione dei risultati e una valutazione preliminare dell’effetto domino. Nel Capitolo 6 infine sono riportate alcune considerazioni conclusive.