Conditional entropy and predictability for non-reversible Markov systems

The purpose of this thesis is to clarify the role of non-equilibrium stationary currents of Markov processes in the context of the predictability of future states of the system. Once the connection between the predictability and the conditional entropy is established, we provide a comprehensive approach to the definition of a multi-particle Markov system. In particular, starting from the well-known theory of random walk on network, we derive the non-linear master equation for an interacting multi-particle system under the one-step process hypothesis, highlighting the limits of its tractability and the prop- erties of its stationary solution. Lastly, in order to study the impact of the NESS on the predictability at short times, we analyze the conditional entropy by modulating the intensity of the stationary currents, both for a single-particle and a multi-particle Markov system. The results obtained analytically are numerically tested on a 5-node cycle network and put in correspondence with the stationary entropy production. Furthermore, because of the low dimensionality of the single-particle system, an analysis of its spectral properties as a function of the modulated stationary currents is performed.

Bioremediation of PAHs - Limitations and soultions

Introduction 1.1 Occurrence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in the environment Worldwide industrial and agricultural developments have released a large number of natural and synthetic hazardous compounds into the environment due to careless waste disposal, illegal waste dumping and accidental spills. As a result, there are numerous sites in the world that require cleanup of soils and groundwater. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are one of the major groups of these contaminants (Da Silva et al., 2003). PAHs constitute a diverse class of organic compounds consisting of two or more aromatic rings with various structural configurations (Prabhu and Phale, 2003). Being a derivative of benzene, PAHs are thermodynamically stable. In addition, these chemicals tend to adhere to particle surfaces, such as soils, because of their low water solubility and strong hydrophobicity, and this results in greater persistence under natural conditions. This persistence coupled with their potential carcinogenicity makes PAHs problematic environmental contaminants (Cerniglia, 1992; Sutherland, 1992). PAHs are widely found in high concentrations at many industrial sites, particularly those associated with petroleum, gas production and wood preserving industries (Wilson and Jones, 1993). 1.2 Remediation technologies Conventional techniques used for the remediation of soil polluted with organic contaminants include excavation of the contaminated soil and disposal to a landfill or capping - containment - of the contaminated areas of a site. These methods have some drawbacks. The first method simply moves the contamination elsewhere and may create significant risks in the excavation, handling and transport of hazardous material. Additionally, it is very difficult and increasingly expensive to find new landfill sites for the final disposal of the material. The cap and containment method is only an interim solution since the contamination remains on site, requiring monitoring and maintenance of the isolation barriers long into the future, with all the associated costs and potential liability. A better approach than these traditional methods is to completely destroy the pollutants, if possible, or transform them into harmless substances. Some technologies that have been used are high-temperature incineration and various types of chemical decomposition (for example, base-catalyzed dechlorination, UV oxidation). However, these methods have significant disadvantages, principally their technological complexity, high cost , and the lack of public acceptance. Bioremediation, on the contrast, is a promising option for the complete removal and destruction of contaminants. 1.3 Bioremediation of PAH contaminated soil & groundwater Bioremediation is the use of living organisms, primarily microorganisms, to degrade or detoxify hazardous wastes into harmless substances such as carbon dioxide, water and cell biomass Most PAHs are biodegradable unter natural conditions (Da Silva et al., 2003; Meysami and Baheri, 2003) and bioremediation for cleanup of PAH wastes has been extensively studied at both laboratory and commercial levels- It has been implemented at a number of contaminated sites, including the cleanup of the Exxon Valdez oil spill in Prince William Sound, Alaska in 1989, the Mega Borg spill off the Texas coast in 1990 and the Burgan Oil Field, Kuwait in 1994 (Purwaningsih, 2002). Different strategies for PAH bioremediation, such as in situ , ex situ or on site bioremediation were developed in recent years. In situ bioremediation is a technique that is applied to soil and groundwater at the site without removing the contaminated soil or groundwater, based on the provision of optimum conditions for microbiological contaminant breakdown.. Ex situ bioremediation of PAHs, on the other hand, is a technique applied to soil and groundwater which has been removed from the site via excavation (soil) or pumping (water). Hazardous contaminants are converted in controlled bioreactors into harmless compounds in an efficient manner. 1.4 Bioavailability of PAH in the subsurface Frequently, PAH contamination in the environment is occurs as contaminants that are sorbed onto soilparticles rather than in phase (NAPL, non aqueous phase liquids). It is known that the biodegradation rate of most PAHs sorbed onto soil is far lower than rates measured in solution cultures of microorganisms with pure solid pollutants (Alexander and Scow, 1989; Hamaker, 1972). It is generally believed that only that fraction of PAHs dissolved in the solution can be metabolized by microorganisms in soil. The amount of contaminant that can be readily taken up and degraded by microorganisms is defined as bioavailability (Bosma et al., 1997; Maier, 2000). Two phenomena have been suggested to cause the low bioavailability of PAHs in soil (Danielsson, 2000). The first one is strong adsorption of the contaminants to the soil constituents which then leads to very slow release rates of contaminants to the aqueous phase. Sorption is often well correlated with soil organic matter content (Means, 1980) and significantly reduces biodegradation (Manilal and Alexander, 1991). The second phenomenon is slow mass transfer of pollutants, such as pore diffusion in the soil aggregates or diffusion in the organic matter in the soil. The complex set of these physical, chemical and biological processes is schematically illustrated in Figure 1. As shown in Figure 1, biodegradation processes are taking place in the soil solution while diffusion processes occur in the narrow pores in and between soil aggregates (Danielsson, 2000). Seemingly contradictory studies can be found in the literature that indicate the rate and final extent of metabolism may be either lower or higher for sorbed PAHs by soil than those for pure PAHs (Van Loosdrecht et al., 1990). These contrasting results demonstrate that the bioavailability of organic contaminants sorbed onto soil is far from being well understood. Besides bioavailability, there are several other factors influencing the rate and extent of biodegradation of PAHs in soil including microbial population characteristics, physical and chemical properties of PAHs and environmental factors (temperature, moisture, pH, degree of contamination). Figure 1: Schematic diagram showing possible rate-limiting processes during bioremediation of hydrophobic organic contaminants in a contaminated soil-water system (not to scale) (Danielsson, 2000). 1.5 Increasing the bioavailability of PAH in soil Attempts to improve the biodegradation of PAHs in soil by increasing their bioavailability include the use of surfactants , solvents or solubility enhancers.. However, introduction of synthetic surfactant may result in the addition of one more pollutant. (Wang and Brusseau, 1993).A study conducted by Mulder et al. showed that the introduction of hydropropyl-ß-cyclodextrin (HPCD), a well-known PAH solubility enhancer, significantly increased the solubilization of PAHs although it did not improve the biodegradation rate of PAHs (Mulder et al., 1998), indicating that further research is required in order to develop a feasible and efficient remediation method. Enhancing the extent of PAHs mass transfer from the soil phase to the liquid might prove an efficient and environmentally low-risk alternative way of addressing the problem of slow PAH biodegradation in soil.

Valutazione del rischio di incidente rilevante con contaminazione del suolo: il caso di un oleodotto.

Il presente lavoro di tesi si colloca nell’ambito della valutazione del rischio di incidente rilevante. Ai sensi della normativa europea (direttive Seveso) e del loro recepimento nella legislazione nazionale (D.Lgs. 334/99 e s.m.i.) un incidente rilevante è costituito da un evento incidentale connesso al rilascio di sostanze pericolose in grado di causare rilevanti danni all’uomo e/o all’ambiente. Ora, se da un lato esistono indici di rischio quantitativi per il bersaglio ”uomo” da tempo definiti e universalmente adottati nonché metodologie standardizzate e condivise per il loro calcolo, dall’altro non vi sono analoghi indici di rischio per il bersaglio “ambiente” comunemente accettati né, conseguentemente, procedure per il loro calcolo. Mancano pertanto anche definizioni e metodologie di calcolo di indici di rischio complessivo, che tengano conto di entrambi i bersagli citati dalla normativa. Al fine di colmare questa lacuna metodologica, che di fatto non consente di dare pieno adempimento alle stesse disposizioni legislative, è stata sviluppata all’interno del Dipartimento di Ingegneria Chimica, Mineraria e delle Tecnologie Ambientali dell’Università degli Studi di Bologna una ricerca che ha portato alla definizione di indici di rischio per il bersaglio “ambiente” e alla messa a punto di una procedura per la loro stima. L’attenzione è stata rivolta in modo specifico al comparto ambientale del suolo e delle acque sotterranee (falda freatica) ed ai rilasci accidentali da condotte di sostanze idrocarburiche immiscibili e più leggere dell’acqua, ovvero alle sostanze cosiddette NAPL – Non Acqueous Phase Liquid, con proprietà di infiammabilità e tossicità. Nello specifico si sono definiti per il bersaglio “ambiente” un indice di rischio ambientale locale rappresentato, punto per punto lungo il percorso della condotta, dai volumi di suolo e di acqua contaminata, nonché indici di rischio ambientale sociale rappresentati da curve F/Vsuolo e F/Sacque, essendo F la frequenza con cui si hanno incidenti in grado di provocare contaminazioni di volumi di suolo e di superfici di falda uguali o superiori a Vsuolo e Sacque. Tramite i costi unitari di decontaminazione del suolo e delle acque gli indici di rischio ambientale sociale possono essere trasformati in indici di rischio ambientale sociale monetizzato, ovvero in curve F/Msuolo e F/Macque, essendo F la frequenza con cui si hanno incidenti in grado di provocare inquinamento di suolo e di acque la cui decontaminazione ha costi uguali o superiori a Msuolo ed Macque. Dalla combinazione delle curve F/Msuolo e F/Macque è possibile ottenere la curva F/Mambiente, che esprime la frequenza degli eventi incidentali in grado di causare un danno ambientale di costo uguale o superiore a Mambiente. Dalla curva di rischio sociale per l’uomo ovvero dalla curva F/Nmorti, essendo F la frequenza con cui si verificano incidenti in grado di determinare un numero di morti maggiore o uguale ad Nmorti, tramite il costo unitario della vita umana VSL (Value of a Statistical Life), è possibile ottenete la curva F/Mmorti, essendo F la frequenza con cui si verificano incidenti in grado di determinare un danno monetizzato all’uomo uguale o superiore ad Mmorti. Dalla combinazione delle curve F/Mambiente ed F/Mmorti è possibile ottenere un indice di rischio sociale complessivo F/Mtotale, essendo F la frequenza con cui si verifica un danno economico complessivo uguale o superiore ad Mtotale. La procedura ora descritta è stata implementata in un apposito software ad interfaccia GIS denominato TRAT-GIS 4.1, al fine di facilitare gli onerosi calcoli richiesti nella fase di ricomposizione degli indici di rischio. La metodologia è stata fino ad ora applicata ad alcuni semplici casi di studio fittizi di modeste dimensioni e, limitatamente al calcolo del rischio per il bersaglio “ambiente”, ad un solo caso reale comunque descritto in modo semplificato. Il presente lavoro di tesi rappresenta la sua prima applicazione ad un caso di studio reale, per il quale sono stati calcolati gli indici di rischio per l’uomo, per l’ambiente e complessivi. Tale caso di studio è costituito dalla condotta che si estende, su un tracciato di 124 km, da Porto Marghera (VE) a Mantova e che trasporta greggi petroliferi. La prima parte del lavoro di tesi è consistita nella raccolta e sistematizzazione dei dati necessari alla stima delle frequenze di accadimento e delle conseguenze per l’uomo e per l’ambiente degli eventi dannosi che dalla condotta possono avere origine. In una seconda fase si è proceduto al calcolo di tali frequenze e conseguenze. I dati reperiti hanno riguardato innanzitutto il sistema “condotta”, del quale sono stati reperiti da un lato dati costruttivi (quali il diametro, la profondità di interramento, la posizione delle valvole sezionamento) e operativi (quali la portata, il profilo di pressione, le caratteristiche del greggio), dall’altro informazioni relative alle misure di emergenza automatiche e procedurali in caso di rilascio, al fine di stimare le frequenze di accadimento ed i termini “sorgente” (ovvero le portate di rilascio) in caso di rotture accidentali per ogni punto della condotta. In considerazione delle particolarità della condotta in esame è stata sviluppata una procedura specifica per il calcolo dei termini sorgente, fortemente dipendenti dai tempi degli interventi di emergenza in caso di rilascio. Una ulteriore fase di raccolta e sistematizzazione dei dati ha riguardato le informazioni relative all’ambiente nel quale è posta la condotta. Ai fini del calcolo del rischio per il bersaglio “uomo” si sono elaborati i dati di densità abitativa nei 41 comuni attraversati dall’oleodotto. Il calcolo dell’estensione degli scenari incidentali dannosi per l’uomo è stato poi effettuato tramite il software commerciale PHAST. Allo scopo della stima del rischio per il bersaglio “ambiente” è stata invece effettuata la caratterizzazione tessiturale dei suoli sui quali corre l’oleodotto (tramite l’individuazione di 5 categorie di terreno caratterizzate da diversi parametri podologici) e la determinazione della profondità della falda freatica, al fine di poter calcolare l’estensione della contaminazione punto per punto lungo la condotta, effettuando in tal modo l’analisi delle conseguenze per gli scenari incidentali dannosi per l’ambiente. Tale calcolo è stato effettuato con il software HSSM - Hydrocarbon Spill Screening Model gratuitamente distribuito da US-EPA. La ricomposizione del rischio, basata sui risultati ottenuti con i software PHAST e HSSM, ha occupato la terza ed ultima fase del lavoro di tesi; essa è stata effettuata tramite il software TRAT-GIS 4.1, ottenendo in forma sia grafica che alfanumerica gli indici di rischio precedentemente definiti. L’applicazione della procedura di valutazione del rischio al caso dell’oleodotto ha dimostrato come sia possibile un’analisi quantificata del rischio per l’uomo, per l’ambiente e complessivo anche per complessi casi reali di grandi dimensioni. Gli indici rischio ottenuti consentono infatti di individuare i punti più critici della condotta e la procedura messa a punto per il loro calcolo permette di testare l’efficacia di misure preventive e protettive adottabili per la riduzione del rischio stesso, fornendo al tempo gli elementi per un’analisi costi/benefici connessa all’implementazione di tali misure. Lo studio effettuato per la condotta esaminata ha inoltre fornito suggerimenti per introdurre in alcuni punti della metodologia delle modifiche migliorative, nonché per facilitare l’analisi tramite il software TRAT-GIS 4.1 di casi di studio di grandi dimensioni.

Design and Characterization of an Active Three-Phase EMI Noise Separator for Three-Phase Power Electronics Systems

One of the major issues for power converters that are connected to the electric grid are the measurement of three phase Conduced Emissions (CE), which are regulated by international and regional standards. CE are composed of two components which are Common Mode (CM) noise and Differential Mode (DM) noise. To achieve compliance with these regulations the Equipment Under Test (EUT) includes filtering and other electromagnetic emission control strategies. The separation of differential mode and common mode noise in Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) analysis is a well-known procedure which is useful especially for the optimization of the EMI filter, to improve the CM or DM attenuation depending on which component of the conducted emissions is predominant, and for the analysis and the understanding of interference phenomena of switched mode power converters. However, separating both components is rarely done during measurements. Therefore, in this thesis an active device for the separation of the CM and DM EMI noise in three phase power electronic systems has been designed and experimentally analysed.

Non linear response of planar asymmetric systems

The seismic behaviour of one-storey asymmetric structures has been studied since 1970s by a number of researches studies which identified the coupled nature of the translational-to-torsional response of those class of systems leading to severe displacement magnifications at the perimeter frames and therefore to significant increase of local peak seismic demand to the structural elements with respect to those of equivalent not-eccentric systems (Kan and Chopra 1987). These studies identified the fundamental parameters (such as the fundamental period TL normalized eccentricity e and the torsional-to-lateral frequency ratio Ωϑ) governing the torsional behavior of in-plan asymmetric structures and trends of behavior. It has been clearly recognized that asymmetric structures characterized by Ωϑ >1, referred to as torsionally-stiff systems, behave quite different form structures with Ωϑ <1, referred to as torsionally-flexible systems. Previous research works by some of the authors proposed a simple closed-form estimation of the maximum torsional response of one-storey elastic systems (Trombetti et al. 2005 and Palermo et al. 2010) leading to the so called “Alpha-method” for the evaluation of the displacement magnification factors at the corner sides. The present paper provides an upgrade of the “Alpha Method” removing the assumption of linear elastic response of the system. The main objective is to evaluate how the excursion of the structural elements in the inelastic field (due to the reaching of yield strength) affects the displacement demand of one-storey in-plan asymmetric structures. The system proposed by Chopra and Goel in 2007, which is claimed to be able to capture the main features of the non-linear response of in-plan asymmetric system, is used to perform a large parametric analysis varying all the fundamental parameters of the system, including the inelastic demand by varying the force reduction factor from 2 to 5. Magnification factors for different force reduction factor are proposed and comparisons with the results obtained from linear analysis are provided.

Distributed non-cooperative robust economic predictive control for dynamically coupled linear systems.

In this thesis, a tube-based Distributed Economic Predictive Control (DEPC) scheme is presented for a group of dynamically coupled linear subsystems. These subsystems are components of a large scale system and control inputs are computed based on optimizing a local economic objective. Each subsystem is interacting with its neighbors by sending its future reference trajectory, at each sampling time. It solves a local optimization problem in parallel, based on the received future reference trajectories of the other subsystems. To ensure recursive feasibility and a performance bound, each subsystem is constrained to not deviate too much from its communicated reference trajectory. This difference between the plan trajectory and the communicated one is interpreted as a disturbance on the local level. Then, to ensure the satisfaction of both state and input constraints, they are tightened by considering explicitly the effect of these local disturbances. The proposed approach averages over all possible disturbances, handles tightened state and input constraints, while satisfies the compatibility constraints to guarantee that the actual trajectory lies within a certain bound in the neighborhood of the reference one. Each subsystem is optimizing a local arbitrary economic objective function in parallel while considering a local terminal constraint to guarantee recursive feasibility. In this framework, economic performance guarantees for a tube-based distributed predictive control (DPC) scheme are developed rigorously. It is presented that the closed-loop nominal subsystem has a robust average performance bound locally which is no worse than that of a local robust steady state. Since a robust algorithm is applying on the states of the real (with disturbances) subsystems, this bound can be interpreted as an average performance result for the real closed-loop system. To this end, we present our outcomes on local and global performance, illustrated by a numerical example.

A novel approach to Non-Orthogonal Random Access with application to NB-IoT NTN systems

In the Massive IoT vision, millions of devices need to be connected to the Internet through a wireless access technology. However, current IoT-focused standards are not fully prepared for this future. In this thesis, a novel approach to Non-Orthogonal techniques for Random Access, which is the main bottleneck in high density systems, is proposed. First, the most popular wireless access standards are presented, with a focus on Narrowband-IoT. Then, the Random Access procedure as implemented in NB-IoT is analyzed. The Non-Orthogonal Random Access technique is presented next, along with two potential algorithms for the detection of non-orthogonal preambles. Finally, the performance of the proposed solutions are obtained through numerical simulations.

Design and Implementation of Single phase 230V to Three Phase Inverter Based on the Embedded System STM-32 Applied to motor control

In the field of Power Electronics, several types of motor control systems have been developed using STM microcontroller and power boards. In both industrial power applications and domestic appliances, power electronic inverters are widely used. Inverters are used to control the torque, speed, and position of the rotor in AC motor drives. An inverter delivers constant-voltage and constant-frequency power in uninterruptible power sources. Because inverter power supplies have a high-power consumption and low transfer efficiency rate, a three-phase sine wave AC power supply was created using the embedded system STM32, which has low power consumption and efficient speed. It has the capacity of output frequency of 50 Hz and the RMS of line voltage. STM32 embedded based Inverter is a power supply that integrates, reduced, and optimized the power electronics application that require hardware system, software, and application solution, including power architecture, techniques, and tools, approaches capable of performance on devices and equipment. Power inverters are currently used and implemented in green energy power system with low energy system such as sensors or microcontroller to perform the operating function of motors and pumps. STM based power inverter is efficient, less cost and reliable. My thesis work was based on STM motor drives and control system which can be implemented in a gas analyser for operating the pumps and motors. It has been widely applied in various engineering sectors due to its ability to respond to adverse structural changes and improved structural reliability. The present research was designed to use STM Inverter board on low power MCU such as NUCLEO with some practical examples such as Blinking LED, and PWM. Then we have implemented a three phase Inverter model with Steval-IPM08B board, which converter single phase 230V AC input to three phase 380 V AC output, the output will be useful for operating the induction motor.

Graph-based User Scheduling for MIMO LEO-based Satellite Communication Systems

The study of the user scheduling problem in a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Multi-User MIMO system is the objective of this thesis. With the application of cutting-edge digital beamforming algorithms, a LEO satellite with an antenna array and a large number of antenna elements can provide service to many user terminals (UTs) in full frequency reuse (FFR) schemes. Since the number of UTs on-ground are many more than the transmit antennas on the satellite, user scheduling is necessary. Scheduling can be accomplished by grouping users into different clusters: users within the same cluster are multiplexed and served together via Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA), i.e., digital beamforming or Multi-User MIMO techniques; the different clusters of users are then served on different time slots via Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA). The design of an optimal user grouping strategy is known to be an NP-complete problem which can be solved only through exhaustive search. In this thesis, we provide a graph-based user scheduling and feed space beamforming architecture for the downlink with the aim of reducing user inter-beam interference. The main idea is based on clustering users whose pairwise great-circle distance is as large as possible. First, we create a graph where the users represent the vertices, whereas an edge in the graph between 2 users exists if their great-circle distance is above a certain threshold. In the second step, we develop a low complex greedy user clustering technique and we iteratively search for the maximum clique in the graph, i.e., the largest fully connected subgraph in the graph. Finally, by using the 3 aforementioned power normalization techniques, a Minimum Mean Square Error (MMSE) beamforming matrix is deployed on a cluster basis. The suggested scheduling system is compared with a position-based scheduler, which generates a beam lattice on the ground and randomly selects one user per beam to form a cluster.