Bioremediation of PAHs - Limitations and soultions

Introduction 1.1 Occurrence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in the environment Worldwide industrial and agricultural developments have released a large number of natural and synthetic hazardous compounds into the environment due to careless waste disposal, illegal waste dumping and accidental spills. As a result, there are numerous sites in the world that require cleanup of soils and groundwater. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are one of the major groups of these contaminants (Da Silva et al., 2003). PAHs constitute a diverse class of organic compounds consisting of two or more aromatic rings with various structural configurations (Prabhu and Phale, 2003). Being a derivative of benzene, PAHs are thermodynamically stable. In addition, these chemicals tend to adhere to particle surfaces, such as soils, because of their low water solubility and strong hydrophobicity, and this results in greater persistence under natural conditions. This persistence coupled with their potential carcinogenicity makes PAHs problematic environmental contaminants (Cerniglia, 1992; Sutherland, 1992). PAHs are widely found in high concentrations at many industrial sites, particularly those associated with petroleum, gas production and wood preserving industries (Wilson and Jones, 1993). 1.2 Remediation technologies Conventional techniques used for the remediation of soil polluted with organic contaminants include excavation of the contaminated soil and disposal to a landfill or capping - containment - of the contaminated areas of a site. These methods have some drawbacks. The first method simply moves the contamination elsewhere and may create significant risks in the excavation, handling and transport of hazardous material. Additionally, it is very difficult and increasingly expensive to find new landfill sites for the final disposal of the material. The cap and containment method is only an interim solution since the contamination remains on site, requiring monitoring and maintenance of the isolation barriers long into the future, with all the associated costs and potential liability. A better approach than these traditional methods is to completely destroy the pollutants, if possible, or transform them into harmless substances. Some technologies that have been used are high-temperature incineration and various types of chemical decomposition (for example, base-catalyzed dechlorination, UV oxidation). However, these methods have significant disadvantages, principally their technological complexity, high cost , and the lack of public acceptance. Bioremediation, on the contrast, is a promising option for the complete removal and destruction of contaminants. 1.3 Bioremediation of PAH contaminated soil & groundwater Bioremediation is the use of living organisms, primarily microorganisms, to degrade or detoxify hazardous wastes into harmless substances such as carbon dioxide, water and cell biomass Most PAHs are biodegradable unter natural conditions (Da Silva et al., 2003; Meysami and Baheri, 2003) and bioremediation for cleanup of PAH wastes has been extensively studied at both laboratory and commercial levels- It has been implemented at a number of contaminated sites, including the cleanup of the Exxon Valdez oil spill in Prince William Sound, Alaska in 1989, the Mega Borg spill off the Texas coast in 1990 and the Burgan Oil Field, Kuwait in 1994 (Purwaningsih, 2002). Different strategies for PAH bioremediation, such as in situ , ex situ or on site bioremediation were developed in recent years. In situ bioremediation is a technique that is applied to soil and groundwater at the site without removing the contaminated soil or groundwater, based on the provision of optimum conditions for microbiological contaminant breakdown.. Ex situ bioremediation of PAHs, on the other hand, is a technique applied to soil and groundwater which has been removed from the site via excavation (soil) or pumping (water). Hazardous contaminants are converted in controlled bioreactors into harmless compounds in an efficient manner. 1.4 Bioavailability of PAH in the subsurface Frequently, PAH contamination in the environment is occurs as contaminants that are sorbed onto soilparticles rather than in phase (NAPL, non aqueous phase liquids). It is known that the biodegradation rate of most PAHs sorbed onto soil is far lower than rates measured in solution cultures of microorganisms with pure solid pollutants (Alexander and Scow, 1989; Hamaker, 1972). It is generally believed that only that fraction of PAHs dissolved in the solution can be metabolized by microorganisms in soil. The amount of contaminant that can be readily taken up and degraded by microorganisms is defined as bioavailability (Bosma et al., 1997; Maier, 2000). Two phenomena have been suggested to cause the low bioavailability of PAHs in soil (Danielsson, 2000). The first one is strong adsorption of the contaminants to the soil constituents which then leads to very slow release rates of contaminants to the aqueous phase. Sorption is often well correlated with soil organic matter content (Means, 1980) and significantly reduces biodegradation (Manilal and Alexander, 1991). The second phenomenon is slow mass transfer of pollutants, such as pore diffusion in the soil aggregates or diffusion in the organic matter in the soil. The complex set of these physical, chemical and biological processes is schematically illustrated in Figure 1. As shown in Figure 1, biodegradation processes are taking place in the soil solution while diffusion processes occur in the narrow pores in and between soil aggregates (Danielsson, 2000). Seemingly contradictory studies can be found in the literature that indicate the rate and final extent of metabolism may be either lower or higher for sorbed PAHs by soil than those for pure PAHs (Van Loosdrecht et al., 1990). These contrasting results demonstrate that the bioavailability of organic contaminants sorbed onto soil is far from being well understood. Besides bioavailability, there are several other factors influencing the rate and extent of biodegradation of PAHs in soil including microbial population characteristics, physical and chemical properties of PAHs and environmental factors (temperature, moisture, pH, degree of contamination). Figure 1: Schematic diagram showing possible rate-limiting processes during bioremediation of hydrophobic organic contaminants in a contaminated soil-water system (not to scale) (Danielsson, 2000). 1.5 Increasing the bioavailability of PAH in soil Attempts to improve the biodegradation of PAHs in soil by increasing their bioavailability include the use of surfactants , solvents or solubility enhancers.. However, introduction of synthetic surfactant may result in the addition of one more pollutant. (Wang and Brusseau, 1993).A study conducted by Mulder et al. showed that the introduction of hydropropyl-ß-cyclodextrin (HPCD), a well-known PAH solubility enhancer, significantly increased the solubilization of PAHs although it did not improve the biodegradation rate of PAHs (Mulder et al., 1998), indicating that further research is required in order to develop a feasible and efficient remediation method. Enhancing the extent of PAHs mass transfer from the soil phase to the liquid might prove an efficient and environmentally low-risk alternative way of addressing the problem of slow PAH biodegradation in soil.

Intervento di riqualificazione di un impianto di compostaggio in ambiente altamente urbanizzato: criticità, verifiche, soluzioni.

Complice l'entrata a far parte dell'Unione Europea e del risultante recepimento delle sue normative e sopratutto dei suoi principi, nel nostro Paese si sta verificando un sostanziale incremento delle realtà territoriali attivate sul fronte della raccolta differenziata. L'intercettazione delle frazioni compostabili (umido e scarti verdi) sta assumendo un ruolo di sempre maggior rilevanza quantitativa nella raccolta differenziata. Infatti dal 1997 al 2007 si è passati da circa 604.000 ton di frazioni raccolte a 2.368.000 ton. Questo sistema di recupero degli scarti organici è attualmente il più diffuso nel nostro Paese. Esso presenta indubbi problemi tecnico-gestionali, sopratutto riconducibili alle emissioni odorigene che raramente risultano però nocive o addirittura tossiche per la salute dell'ambiente e delle persone. Nonostante questo dato gli impianti di compostaggio incontrano spesso una diffusa e forte avversione da quella parte di popolazione interessata ad accogliere l'impianto sul proprio territorio rispetto anche ad impianti di indubbia maggior pericolosità. Per via di questo generale atteggiamento in Italia risulta pertanto esistere una normativa particolarmente stringente sulle garanzie ambientali necessarie per la realizzazione di impianti di compostaggio confrontata con quella europea. Questa normativa però lascia inalterata la difficoltà nella diffusione di un'impiantistica adeguata a rispondere alle necessità della raccolta differenziata. Questo problema risulta ancor più rilevante come nel caso dell'impianto oggetto di studio situato in ambiente altamente urbanizzato. In questi territori ad alta densità abitativa spesso si assiste alla degenerazione del sistema dove protratte conflittualità con la popolazione interessata ostacolano l'esercizio o portano alla temporanea cessazione delle attività degli impianti esistenti. Ulteriore problema risulta essere il fatto che anche in impianti nuovi criteri corretti di progettazione e costruzione risultano essere alle volte non sufficienti per evitare le precedenti problematiche, diventa quindi oltremodo difficoltoso ottenere gli stessi risultati intervenendo su impianti già esistenti con misure di riqualificazione adeguate e compatibili con la sostenibilità economica dell'impianto. Per tanto questa tesi si propone di individuare le problematiche esistenti e proporre soluzioni efficaci al rilevante problema delle emissioni odorigene che sembra caratterizzare questo impianto, tramite uno studio dello stato di fatto e l'analisi delle criticità riscontrate, concentrandosi in modo particolare sul biofiltro e sulla biofiltrazione, che sembra essere il problema principale che influenza la qualità delle emissioni. Il caso oggetto di questa tesi riguarda un impianto avviato nel 2004 che, dopo un lungo periodo di esercizio caratterizzato da problematiche ambientali mai pienamente risolte, è stato sottoposto dalla seconda metà del 2008 ad una semplice e sistematica revisione delle procedure gestionali e mirati interventi tecnici ed impiantistici nell'ambito di un percorso di risanamento e riqualificazione. 5