New polymeric materials for vascular surgery

The dramatic impact that vascular diseases have on human life quality and expectancy nowadays is the reason why both medical and scientific communities put great effort in discovering new and effective ways to fight vascular pathologies. Among the many different treatments, endovascular surgery is a minimally-invasive technique that makes use of X-ray fluoroscopy to obtain real-time images of the patient during interventions. In this context radiopaque biomaterials, i.e. materials able to absorb X-ray radiation, play a fundamental role as they are employed both to enhance visibility of devices during interventions and to protect medical staff and patients from X-ray radiations. Organic-inorganic hybrids are materials that combine characteristics of organic polymers with those of inorganic metal oxides. These materials can be synthesized via the sol-gel process and can be easily applied as thin coatings on different kinds of substrates. Good radiopacity of organic-inorganic hybrids has been recently reported suggesting that these materials might find applications in medical fields where X-ray absorption and visibility is required. The present PhD thesis aimed at developing and characterizing new radiopaque organic-inorganic hybrid materials that can find application in the vascular surgery field as coatings for the improvement of medical devices traceability as well as for the production of X-ray shielding objects and garments. Novel organic-inorganic hybrids based on different polyesters (poly-lactic acid and poly-ε-caprolactone) and polycarbonate (poly-trimethylene carbonate) as the polymeric phase and on titanium oxide as the inorganic phase were synthesized. Study of the phase interactions in these materials allowed to demonstrate that Class II hybrids (where covalent bonds exists between the two phases) can be obtained starting from any kind of polyester or polycarbonate, without the need of polymer pre-functionalization, thanks to the occurrence of transesterification reactions operated by inorganic molecules on ester and carbonate moieties. Polyester based hybrids were successfully coated via dip coating on different kinds of textiles. Coated textiles showed improved radiopacity with respect to the plain fabric while remaining soft to the touch. The hybrid was able to coat single fibers of the yarn rather than coating the yarn as a whole. Openings between yarns were maintained and therefore fabric breathability was preserved. Such coatings are promising for the production of light-weight garments for X-ray protection of medical staff during interventional fluoroscopy, which will help preventing pathologies that stem from chronic X-ray exposure. A means to increase the protection capacity of hybrid-coated fabrics was also investigated and implemented in this thesis. By synthesizing the hybrid in the presence of a suspension of radiopaque tantalum nanoparticles, PDMS-titania hybrid materials with tunable radiopacity were developed and were successfully applied as coatings. A solution for enhancing medical device radiopacity was also successfully investigated. High metal radiopacity was associated with good mechanical and protective properties of organic-inorganic hybrids in the form of a double-layer coating. Tantalum was employed as the constituent of the first layer deposited on sample substrates by means of a sputtering technique. The second layer was composed of a hybrid whose constituents are well-known biocompatible organic and inorganic components, such as the two polymers PCL and PDMS, and titanium oxide, respectively. The metallic layer conferred to the substrate good X-ray visibility. A correlation between radiopacity and coating thickness derived during this study allows to tailor radiopacity simply by controlling the metal layer sputtering deposition time. The applied metal deposition technique also permits easy shaping of the radiopaque layer, allowing production of radiopaque markers for medical devices that can be unambiguously identified by surgeons during implantation and in subsequent radiological investigations. Synthesized PCL-titania and PDMS-titania hybrids strongly adhered to substrates and show good biocompatibility as highlighted by cytotoxicity tests. The PDMS-titania hybrid coating was also characterized by high flexibility that allows it to stand large substrate deformations without detaching nor cracking, thus being suitable for application on flexible medical devices.

Sintesi, modifica e caratterizzazione di polimeri da fonti rinnovabili

Gli argomenti trattati all’interno di questa tesi di dottorato riguardano la sintesi e la modifica di polimeri ottenuti a partire da fonti rinnovabili. L’acido polilattico (PLA) è stato modificato per ottenere film estensibili per uso alimentare. La scelta del materiale si è basata sull’analisi del suo ciclo di vita e perché è riconosciuto come sicuro per l’utilizzo nel campo alimentare. Le formulazioni testate, a base di PLA, sono state preparate con l’aggiunta di una serie di additivi utilizzati per migliorare le proprietà meccaniche del materiale. La lavorazione è stata eseguita mediante estrusione, ottenendo dei pellet a composizione omogenea successivamente lavorati nell’estrusore a bolla, modalità industriale di produzione dei film estensibili. È stata poi effettuata la sintesi diretta di nuovi poliesteri insaturi a base di dimetil succinato e 1,6-esandiolo. L’insaturazione della catena è stata ottenuta mediante l’uso, durante la sintesi, di derivati dell’olio di ricino, l’acido ricinoleico e il suo derivato insaturo metil undecenoato. Un’altra molecola insatura utilizzata è stata il citronellolo, scelto tra i terpeni. I polimeri così ottenuti sono stati modificati tramite reazioni radicaliche indotte con radiazioni UV utilizzando sostanze antibatteriche (sale 3-esadecil-1-vinilimidazolo bromuro) al fine di ottenere materiali con attività biocida a lungo termine e senza rilascio. Si è proceduto inoltre alla polimerizzazione reversibile di monomeri furanici con oli vegetali utilizzando una strategia di tipo double click. Si è partiti dalla sintesi di monomeri derivanti da oli vegetali contenenti eterocicli furanici attaccati mediante addizione tiol-enica (prima reazione click chemistry) e si è proseguito con la loro successiva polimerizzazione attraverso una reazione di tipo Diels-Alder con molecole con gruppi maleimmidici (seconda reazione click chemistry). I polimeri così ottenuti sono materiali potenzialmente auto-riparanti, grazie alla possibilità di spostare l’equilibrio verso i prodotti o i reagenti semplicemente variando le condizioni di temperatura.

Electrospun Polymeric Scaffolds with Enhanced Biomimetic Properties for Tissue Engineering Applications

This PhD Thesis is focused on the development of fibrous polymeric scaffolds for tissue engineering applications and on the improvement of scaffold biomimetic properties. Scaffolds were fabricated by electrospinning, which allows to obtain scaffolds made of polymeric micro or nanofibers. Biomimetism was enhanced by following two approaches: (1) the use of natural biopolymers, and (2) the modification of the fibers surface chemistry. Gelatin was chosen for its bioactive properties and cellular affinity, however it lacks in mechanical properties. This problem was overcome by adding poly(lactic acid) to the scaffold through co-electrospinning and mechanical properties of the composite constructs were assessed. Gelatin effectively improves cell growth and viability and worth noting, composite scaffolds of gelatin and poly(lactic acid) were more effective than a plain gelatin scaffold. Scaffolds made of pure collagen fibers were fabricated. Modification of collagen triple helix structure in electrospun collagen fibers was studied. Mechanical properties were evaluated before and after crosslinking. The crosslinking procedure was developed and optimized by using - for the first time on electrospun collagen fibers - the crosslinking reactant 1,4-butanediol diglycidyl ether, with good results in terms of fibers stabilization. Cell culture experiments showed good results in term of cell adhesion and morphology. The fiber surface chemistry of electrospun poly(lactic acid) scaffold was modified by plasma treatment. Plasma did not affect thermal and mechanical properties of the scaffold, while it greatly increased its hydrophilicity by the introduction of carboxyl groups at the fiber surface. This fiber functionalization enhanced the fibroblast cell viability and spreading. Surface modifications by chemical reactions were conducted on electrospun scaffolds made of a polysophorolipid. The aim was to introduce a biomolecule at the fiber surface. By developing a series of chemical reactions, one oligopeptide every three repeating units of polysophorolipid was grafted at the surface of electrospun fibers.