Natural patterns and anthropogenic disturbance in north Adriatic marine benthic assemblages: descriptive and methodological studies

Marine soft bottom systems show a high variability across multiple spatial and temporal scales. Both natural and anthropogenic sources of disturbance act together in affecting benthic sedimentary characteristics and species distribution. The description of such spatial variability is required to understand the ecological processes behind them. However, in order to have a better estimate of spatial patterns, methods that take into account the complexity of the sedimentary system are required. This PhD thesis aims to give a significant contribution both in improving the methodological approaches to the study of biological variability in soft bottom habitats and in increasing the knowledge of the effect that different process (both natural and anthropogenic) could have on the benthic communities of a large area in the North Adriatic Sea. Beta diversity is a measure of the variability in species composition, and Whittaker’s index has become the most widely used measure of beta-diversity. However, application of the Whittaker index to soft bottom assemblages of the Adriatic Sea highlighted its sensitivity to rare species (species recorded in a single sample). This over-weighting of rare species induces biased estimates of the heterogeneity, thus it becomes difficult to compare assemblages containing a high proportion of rare species. In benthic communities, the unusual large number of rare species is frequently attributed to a combination of sampling errors and insufficient sampling effort. In order to reduce the influence of rare species on the measure of beta diversity, I have developed an alternative index based on simple probabilistic considerations. It turns out that this probability index is an ordinary Michaelis-Menten transformation of Whittaker's index but behaves more favourably when species heterogeneity increases. The suggested index therefore seems appropriate when comparing patterns of complexity in marine benthic assemblages. Although the new index makes an important contribution to the study of biodiversity in sedimentary environment, it remains to be seen which processes, and at what scales, influence benthic patterns. The ability to predict the effects of ecological phenomena on benthic fauna highly depends on both spatial and temporal scales of variation. Once defined, implicitly or explicitly, these scales influence the questions asked, the methodological approaches and the interpretation of results. Problem often arise when representative samples are not taken and results are over-generalized, as can happen when results from small-scale experiments are used for resource planning and management. Such issues, although globally recognized, are far from been resolved in the North Adriatic Sea. This area is potentially affected by both natural (e.g. river inflow, eutrophication) and anthropogenic (e.g. gas extraction, fish-trawling) sources of disturbance. Although few studies in this area aimed at understanding which of these processes mainly affect macrobenthos, these have been conducted at a small spatial scale, as they were designated to examine local changes in benthic communities or particular species. However, in order to better describe all the putative processes occurring in the entire area, a high sampling effort performed at a large spatial scale is required. The sedimentary environment of the western part of the Adriatic Sea was extensively studied in this thesis. I have described, in detail, spatial patterns both in terms of sedimentary characteristics and macrobenthic organisms and have suggested putative processes (natural or of human origin) that might affect the benthic environment of the entire area. In particular I have examined the effect of off shore gas platforms on benthic diversity and tested their effect over a background of natural spatial variability. The results obtained suggest that natural processes in the North Adriatic such as river outflow and euthrophication show an inter-annual variability that might have important consequences on benthic assemblages, affecting for example their spatial pattern moving away from the coast and along a North to South gradient. Depth-related factors, such as food supply, light, temperature and salinity play an important role in explaining large scale benthic spatial variability (i.e., affecting both the abundance patterns and beta diversity). Nonetheless, more locally, effects probably related to an organic enrichment or pollution from Po river input has been observed. All these processes, together with few human-induced sources of variability (e.g. fishing disturbance), have a higher effect on macrofauna distribution than any effect related to the presence of gas platforms. The main effect of gas platforms is restricted mainly to small spatial scales and related to a change in habitat complexity due to a natural dislodgement or structure cleaning of mussels that colonize their legs. The accumulation of mussels on the sediment reasonably affects benthic infauna composition. All the components of the study presented in this thesis highlight the need to carefully consider methodological aspects related to the study of sedimentary habitats. With particular regards to the North Adriatic Sea, a multi-scale analysis along natural and anthopogenic gradients was useful for detecting the influence of all the processes affecting the sedimentary environment. In the future, applying a similar approach may lead to an unambiguous assessment of the state of the benthic community in the North Adriatic Sea. Such assessment may be useful in understanding if any anthropogenic source of disturbance has a negative effect on the marine environment, and if so, planning sustainable strategies for a proper management of the affected area.

Mediterranean brachiopods: morphological, ecological and phylogenetic aspects

The Brachiopoda of the Marine Protected Area “Secche di Tor Paterno”, Central Tyrrhenian Sea, have been investigated in order to give a first glance of the diversity of the brachiopods of this area and provide a new report on the Mediterranean Brachiopod fauna. Four species were reported: Novocrania anomala (Müller, 1776), Megathiris detruncata (Gmelin, 1790), Joania cordata (Risso,1826) and Argyrotheca cuneata (Risso,1826). For all the four species a morphological analysis was carried out. For the two most abundant species, J.cordata and A. cuneata, a morphometric study, based on thickness/width and length/width scattergrams, was carried out, in order to investigate their variability. Size-frequency distributions relative to the three dimensions of the shell were also computed, aimed at a evaluation of population dynamics of these two species. The results showed that, for both species, the parameters which most determine the rise of the shell during the growth of animal are width and length and that frequency distributions are mainly bi- or plurymodal and that they are difficult to interpret, as reported by other studies. Analysis of drill holes found on the shell of some specimens of the two same species revealed a predatory origin and that three different predators are responsible for them. Partial sequences of two different genetic markers, the Internal Transcribed Spacer 1 (ITS1) and the cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI), were used to investigate the phylogenetic relationship between two populations of the eurybathic brachiopod species Gryphus vitreus (Born,1778) across the strait of Gibraltar. This represents the first genetic population study on brachiopods. Results from AMOVA and Bayesian analysis performed on 31 specimens highlighted no genetic differentiation indicating a likely panmixia, dispite the lecitotrophic development of the species.

The school environment as a teacher. The role of space and place in enhancing ecological literacy and social competence development in children and young people

Can space and place foster child development, and in particular social competence and ecological literacy? If yes, how can space and place do that? This study shows that the answer to the first question is positive and then tries to explain the way space and place can make a difference. The thesis begins with the review of literature from different disciplines – child development and child psychology, education, environmental psychology, architecture and landscape architecture. Some bridges among such disciplines are created and in some cases the ideas from the different areas of research merge: thus, this is an interdisciplinary study. The interdisciplinary knowledge from these disciplines is translated into a range of design suggestions that can foster the development of social competence and ecological literacy. Using scientific knowledge from different disciplines is a way of introducing forms of evidence into the development of design criteria. However, the definition of design criteria also has to pass through the study of a series of school buildings and un-built projects: case studies can give a positive contribution to the criteria because examples and good practices can help “translating” the theoretical knowledge into design ideas and illustrations. To do that, the different case studies have to be assessed in relation to the various themes that emerged in the literature review. Finally, research by design can be used to help define the illustrated design criteria: based on all the background knowledge that has been built, the role of the architect is to provide a series of different design solutions that can give answers to the different “questions” emerged in the literature review.

Probiotics for the prevention/treatment of human diseases and ecological study of the intestinal microbiota

The interest in human intestinal microbiota has increased in the last 20 years and significant advances have been achieved with regard to its composition and functions. The gut microbiota contributes to the maintenance of the host health status and, since alterations in the gut microbiota have been involved in the pathogenesis/progression of some diseases, several studies have focused on the manipulation of its composition. Probiotics are a strategy to maintain/restore the correct balance of gut microbial population and to prevent/treat diseases. The aim of this thesis was to explore the possibility of probiotic supplementation for the prevention/treatment of human diseases and the related study of the intestinal microbial environment. After reviewing studies concerning the use of Bifidobacterium breve as probiotic in paediatric diseases, the effectiveness of a probiotic formulation consisting of two strains of B. breve was assessed in paediatric subjects for the prevention or alleviation of gastrointestinal disorders, including coeliac disease and paediatric obesity. As the emerging role of gut microbiota in neurological diseases, the intestinal microbial environment in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis patients compared to healthy controls and the effects of a probiotic administration were examined. Considering the role of viruses in shaping gut microbiota, gut bacteriophages and bacterial community of preterm infants were investigated. The results evidenced differences in gut microbial composition of healthy controls and diseased subjects in coeliac and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis patients. The probiotic approach was effective in restoring the microbial composition in the former, whereas, in the latter, the influence was focused only on some microbial groups. The probiotic intervention was effective in improving the glyco-insulinemic profile in obese children and in preventing gastrointestinal disorders in healthy newborns. The study of the bacterial and phage composition in preterm infants suggested a transkingdom interplay between bacteria and viruses with a reciprocal influence on their composition.

Unlocking ecological history using fish remains: Eco-evolutionary consequences of exploitation in the Atlantic bluefin tuna

During recent decades, the health of ocean ecosystems and fish populations has been threatened by overexploitation, pollution, and anthropogenic-driven climate change. Due to a lack of long-term data, we have a poor understanding of when intensive exploitation began and what impact anthropogenic activities have had on the ecology and evolution of fishes. Such information is crucial to recover degraded and depleted marine ecosystems and fish populations, maximise their productivity in-line with historical levels, and predict their future dynamics. In this thesis, I evaluate anthropogenic impacts on the iconic Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus; BFT), one of the longest and recently most intensely exploited marine fishes, with a tremendous cultural and economic importance. Using a long-time series of archaeological and archived faunal remains (bones) dating back to approximately two millennia ago, I apply morphological, isotopic, and genomic techniques to perform the first studies on long-term BFT size and growth, diet and habitat use, and demography and adaptation, and produce the first genome-wide data on this species. My findings suggest that exploitation had impacted BFT foraging behaviour by the ~16th century when coastal ecosystem degradation induced a pelagic shift in diet and habitat use. I reveal that BFT biomass began to decline much earlier than hitherto documented, by the 19th century, consistent with intensive tuna trap catches during this period and catch-at-size increasing. I find that BFT juvenile growth had increased by the early 1900s (and more dramatically by the 21st century) which may reflect an evolutionary response to size selective harvest–which I find putative genomic signatures of. Further, I observed that BFT foraging behaviours have been modified following overexploitation during the 20th century, which previously included a isotopically distinct, Black Sea niche. Finally, I show that despite biomass declining from centuries ago, BFT has retained genomic diversity.