Essays in Economic Geography and Long-Term Development

This dissertation has two main themes: first, the economic impact of tourism on cities and, secondly, the determinants of European long-run development, with a focus on the pre-Industrial era. The common thread is the attempt to develop economic geography models that incorporate spatial frictions and are liable to be given empirical content. Chapter 1, written in conjunction with G. Alfredo Minerva, provides an empirical analysis of the relationship between tourism and economic activity across Italian municipalities, and lays down the basic elements of an urban theory of tourism in an a-spatial setting. Chapter 2 extends these ideas to a quantitative urban framework to study the economic impact and the welfare consequences of tourism into the city of Venice. The model is given empirical content thanks to a large collection of data at the Census tract level for the Municipality of Venice, and then used to perform counterfactual policty analysis. In chapter 3, with Matteo Santacesaria, we consider a setting where agents are continuously distributed over a two-dimensional heterogeneous geography, and are allowed to do business at a finite set of markets. We study the equilibrium partition of the economic space into a collection of mutually-exclusive market areas, and provide condition for this equilibrium partition to exist and to be unique. Finally, chapter 4 "The rise of (urban) Europe: a Quantitative-Spatial analysis", co-authored with Matteo Cervellati and Alex Lehner, sets up a quantitative economic geography model to understand the roots of the Industrial Revolution, in an attempt to match the evolution of the European urban network, and the corresponding city-size distribution, over the period A.D. 1000-1850. It highlights the importance of agricultural trade across cities for the emergence of large manufacturing hubs.

3D probability tomography: theoretical developments and applications to high-resolution geophysical prospecting

The theory of the 3D multipole probability tomography method (3D GPT) to image source poles, dipoles, quadrupoles and octopoles, of a geophysical vector or scalar field dataset is developed. A geophysical dataset is assumed to be the response of an aggregation of poles, dipoles, quadrupoles and octopoles. These physical sources are used to reconstruct without a priori assumptions the most probable position and shape of the true geophysical buried sources, by determining the location of their centres and critical points of their boundaries, as corners, wedges and vertices. This theory, then, is adapted to the geoelectrical, gravity and self potential methods. A few synthetic examples using simple geometries and three field examples are discussed in order to demonstrate the notably enhanced resolution power of the new approach. At first, the application to a field example related to a dipole–dipole geoelectrical survey carried out in the archaeological park of Pompei is presented. The survey was finalised to recognize remains of the ancient Roman urban network including roads, squares and buildings, which were buried under the thick pyroclastic cover fallen during the 79 AD Vesuvius eruption. The revealed anomaly structures are ascribed to wellpreserved remnants of some aligned walls of Roman edifices, buried and partially destroyed by the 79 AD Vesuvius pyroclastic fall. Then, a field example related to a gravity survey carried out in the volcanic area of Mount Etna (Sicily, Italy) is presented, aimed at imaging as accurately as possible the differential mass density structure within the first few km of depth inside the volcanic apparatus. An assemblage of vertical prismatic blocks appears to be the most probable gravity model of the Etna apparatus within the first 5 km of depth below sea level. Finally, an experimental SP dataset collected in the Mt. Somma-Vesuvius volcanic district (Naples, Italy) is elaborated in order to define location and shape of the sources of two SP anomalies of opposite sign detected in the northwestern sector of the surveyed area. The modelled sources are interpreted as the polarization state induced by an intense hydrothermal convective flow mechanism within the volcanic apparatus, from the free surface down to about 3 km of depth b.s.l..

Analisi e ottimizzazione del servizio di raccolta e trasporto dei rifiuti anche in relazione alle tematiche ambientali: un'applicazione alla rete urbana di Bologna

Questo studio, che è stato realizzato in collaborazione con Hera, è un'analisi della gestione dei rifiuti a Bologna. La ricerca è stata effettuata su diversi livelli: un livello strategico il cui scopo è quello di identificare nuovi metodi per la raccolta dei rifiuti in funzione delle caratteristiche del territorio della città, un livello analitico che riguarda il miglioramento delle applicazioni informatiche di supporto, e livello ambientale che riguarda il calcolo delle emissioni in atmosfera di veicoli adibiti alla raccolta e al trasporto dei rifiuti. innanzitutto è stato necessario studiare Bologna e lo stato attuale dei servizi di raccolta dei rifiuti. È incrociando questi componenti che in questi ultimi tre anni sono state effettuate modifiche nel settore della gestione dei rifiuti. I capitoli seguenti sono inerenti le applicazioni informatiche a sostegno di tali attività: Siget e Optit. Siget è il programma di gestione del servizio, che attualmente viene utilizzato per tutte le attività connesse alla raccolta di rifiuti. È un programma costituito da moduli diversi, ma di sola la gestione dati. la sperimentazione con Optit ha aggiunto alla gestione dei dati la possibilità di avere tali dati in cartografia e di associare un algoritmo di routing. I dati archiviati in Siget hanno rappresentato il punto di partenza, l'input, e il raggiungimento di tutti punti raccolta l'obiettivo finale. L'ultimo capitolo è relativo allo studio dell'impatto ambientale di questi percorsi di raccolta dei rifiuti. Tale analisi, basata sulla valutazione empirica e sull'implementazione in Excel delle formule del Corinair mostra la fotografia del servizio nel 2010. Su questo aspetto Optit ha fornito il suo valore aggiunto, implementando nell'algoritmo anche le formule per il calcolo delle emissioni.

Competitività in sostenibilità urbana e territoriale. L’Emilia Romagna, regione d’Europa

The thesis in Urban and Regional Geography titled “URBAN AND TERRITORIAL COMPETITIVENESS IN SUSTAINABILITY. EMILIA-ROMAGNA, REGION OF EUROPE” is divided into two sections. Section one is additionally composed by two chapters (chap. 1 and 2) and deals with theoretical and gnosiological issues. Section two, of two more chapters (chap. 3 and 4), provides practical contributions: these issues give explanatory patterns to interpret the performances of emiliano-romagnoli urban systems. Chapter one is an introductory chapter. It analyzes globalization that involves a larger and larger number of cities, rich or poor. It also considers the so called “digital divide” either as one of the major phenomena of this unhomogeneous development or as an interesting gnosiological and practical challenge of geography. Globalization is now involving all the cities, large or small, but the small ones have higher risks of exclusion: it depends on their more fragile socio-economic, cultural, and environmental urban structure. That’s why European Union (chapter two) promotes policies and endows politics to sustain cities, because urban systems are the basis for the territorial development. So, European, national and local Institutions are firmly interested in promoting urban and local interventions and projects. Section two deals with economic-geography methods, which consists on collecting indicators and the benchmarking methodology. It also specifically analyzes the urban systems of Emilia-Romagna. Consequences of the globalization on the cities are interpreted with a study of their local resources, intended as potentials for their development. The STeMA approach, proposed by Professor Maria Prezioso (University of Roma, “Tor Vergata”) and used by the ESPON (European Spatial Program Observation Network) project, describes the main “determinants” of the territorial and urban development. These are easily comparable to one another (similar or better performing). This approach achieves two goals. On one hand, it is possible to analyze every urban system in its all main characteristics and to preserve its historical and cultural factors. On another hand, each city is “knowable” and “understandable” by all scholars, as it is objectively comparable. So, urban planners can propose specific “multi-level” and “multi-varied” programs of governance. These will face globalization by exalting local empowerment.

Quantifying and modeling ecosystem services provided by urban greening in cities of the Southern Alps, N Italy

Population growth in urban areas is a world-wide phenomenon. According to a recent United Nations report, over half of the world now lives in cities. Numerous health and environmental issues arise from this unprecedented urbanization. Recent studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of urban green spaces and the role they play in improving both the aesthetics and the quality of life of its residents. In particular, urban green spaces provide ecosystem services such as: urban air quality improvement by removing pollutants that can cause serious health problems, carbon storage, carbon sequestration and climate regulation through shading and evapotranspiration. Furthermore, epidemiological studies with controlled age, sex, marital and socio-economic status, have provided evidence of a positive relationship between green space and the life expectancy of senior citizens. However, there is little information on the role of public green spaces in mid-sized cities in northern Italy. To address this need, a study was conducted to assess the ecosystem services of urban green spaces in the city of Bolzano, South Tyrol, Italy. In particular, we quantified the cooling effect of urban trees and the hourly amount of pollution removed by the urban forest. The information was gathered using field data collected through local hourly air pollution readings, tree inventory and simulation models. During the study we quantified pollution removal for ozone, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide and particulate matter (<10 microns). We estimated the above ground carbon stored and annually sequestered by the urban forest. Results have been compared to transportation CO2 emissions to determine the CO2 offset potential of urban streetscapes. Furthermore, we assessed commonly used methods for estimating carbon stored and sequestered by urban trees in the city of Bolzano. We also quantified ecosystem disservices such as hourly urban forest volatile organic compound emissions.

Greening the city: an ecosystem-based framework to support planning towards urban sustainability and resilience

Cities are small-scale complex socio-ecological systems, that host around 60% of world population. Ecosystem Services (ES) provided by urban ecosystems offer multiple benefits necessary to cope with present and future urban challenges. These ES include microclimate regulation, runoff control, as well as opportunities for mental and physical recreation, affecting citizen’s health and wellbeing. Creating a balance between urban development, land take containment, climate adaptation and availability of Urban Green Areas and their related benefits, can improve the quality of the lives of the inhabitants, the economic performance of the city and the social justice and cohesion aspects. This work starts analysing current literature around the topic of Ecosystem Services (ES), Green and Blue Infrastructure (GBI) and Nature-based Solutions (NBS) and their integration within current European and International sustainability policies. Then, the thesis focuses on the role of ES, GBI and NBS towards urban sustainability and resilience setting the basis to build the core methodological and conceptual approach of this work. The developed ES-based conceptual approach provides guidance on how to map and assess ES, to better inform policy making and to give the proper value to ES within urban context. The proposed interdisciplinary approach navigates the topic of mapping and assessing ES benefits in terms of regulatory services, with a focus on climate mitigation and adaptation, and cultural services, to enhance wellbeing and justice in urban areas. Last, this thesis proposes a trans-disciplinary and participatory approach to build resilience over time around all relevant urban ES. The two case studies that will be presented in this dissertation, the city of Bologna and the city of Barcelona, have been used to implement, tailor and test the proposed conceptual framework, raising valuable inputs for planning, policies and science.

Technologies for urban and rural internet of things

Nowadays, application domains such as smart cities, agriculture or intelligent transportation, require communication technologies that combine long transmission ranges and energy efficiency to fulfill a set of capabilities and constraints to rely on. In addition, in recent years, the interest in Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) providing wireless connectivity in such scenarios is substantially increased thanks to their flexible deployment. The first chapters of this thesis deal with LoRaWAN and Narrowband-IoT (NB-IoT), which recent trends identify as the most promising Low Power Wide Area Networks technologies. While LoRaWAN is an open protocol that has gained a lot of interest thanks to its simplicity and energy efficiency, NB-IoT has been introduced from 3GPP as a radio access technology for massive machine-type communications inheriting legacy LTE characteristics. This thesis offers an overview of the two, comparing them in terms of selected performance indicators. In particular, LoRaWAN technology is assessed both via simulations and experiments, considering different network architectures and solutions to improve its performance (e.g., a new Adaptive Data Rate algorithm). NB-IoT is then introduced to identify which technology is more suitable depending on the application considered. The second part of the thesis introduces the use of UAVs as flying Base Stations, denoted as Unmanned Aerial Base Stations, (UABSs), which are considered as one of the key pillars of 6G to offer service for a number of applications. To this end, the performance of an NB-IoT network are assessed considering a UABS following predefined trajectories. Then, machine learning algorithms based on reinforcement learning and meta-learning are considered to optimize the trajectory as well as the radio resource management techniques the UABS may rely on in order to provide service considering both static (IoT sensors) and dynamic (vehicles) users. Finally, some experimental projects based on the technologies mentioned so far are presented.

Design and Performance Evaluation of Network-on-Chip Communication Protocols and Architectures

The scale down of transistor technology allows microelectronics manufacturers such as Intel and IBM to build always more sophisticated systems on a single microchip. The classical interconnection solutions based on shared buses or direct connections between the modules of the chip are becoming obsolete as they struggle to sustain the increasing tight bandwidth and latency constraints that these systems demand. The most promising solution for the future chip interconnects are the Networks on Chip (NoC). NoCs are network composed by routers and channels used to inter- connect the different components installed on the single microchip. Examples of advanced processors based on NoC interconnects are the IBM Cell processor, composed by eight CPUs that is installed on the Sony Playstation III and the Intel Teraflops pro ject composed by 80 independent (simple) microprocessors. On chip integration is becoming popular not only in the Chip Multi Processor (CMP) research area but also in the wider and more heterogeneous world of Systems on Chip (SoC). SoC comprehend all the electronic devices that surround us such as cell-phones, smart-phones, house embedded systems, automotive systems, set-top boxes etc... SoC manufacturers such as ST Microelectronics , Samsung, Philips and also Universities such as Bologna University, M.I.T., Berkeley and more are all proposing proprietary frameworks based on NoC interconnects. These frameworks help engineers in the switch of design methodology and speed up the development of new NoC-based systems on chip. In this Thesis we propose an introduction of CMP and SoC interconnection networks. Then focusing on SoC systems we propose: • a detailed analysis based on simulation of the Spidergon NoC, a ST Microelectronics solution for SoC interconnects. The Spidergon NoC differs from many classical solutions inherited from the parallel computing world. Here we propose a detailed analysis of this NoC topology and routing algorithms. Furthermore we propose aEqualized a new routing algorithm designed to optimize the use of the resources of the network while also increasing its performance; • a methodology flow based on modified publicly available tools that combined can be used to design, model and analyze any kind of System on Chip; • a detailed analysis of a ST Microelectronics-proprietary transport-level protocol that the author of this Thesis helped developing; • a simulation-based comprehensive comparison of different network interface designs proposed by the author and the researchers at AST lab, in order to integrate shared-memory and message-passing based components on a single System on Chip; • a powerful and flexible solution to address the time closure exception issue in the design of synchronous Networks on Chip. Our solution is based on relay stations repeaters and allows to reduce the power and area demands of NoC interconnects while also reducing its buffer needs; • a solution to simplify the design of the NoC by also increasing their performance and reducing their power and area consumption. We propose to replace complex and slow virtual channel-based routers with multiple and flexible small Multi Plane ones. This solution allows us to reduce the area and power dissipation of any NoC while also increasing its performance especially when the resources are reduced. This Thesis has been written in collaboration with the Advanced System Technology laboratory in Grenoble France, and the Computer Science Department at Columbia University in the city of New York.

La lunga storia dell'idrovia Padova - Venezia

The present dissertation focuses on an unfinished project for the construction of an inland waterway between Padua and Venice, in northern Italy. The history of this channel is analysed in the context of the general debate for the development of a waterway network in the Padanian plain. The project of reconstructing and enlarging the existing ancient channels for the development of a modern river transport system was born at the beginning of the 20th century as an attempt to withstand the railway’s concurrency. The main project aimed at transforming the Po river and other small rivers and channels in a big waterway for the connection of the most important northern industrial cities with Venice’s harbour and the Adriatic sea. Even if the idea of restoring the historical channel between Padua and Venice arose at the end of the First World War, it was only during the years 50s that a new project was conceived and the waterway was included in a global project for the construction of a whole new channel from Venice to Milan. The new project, strongly supported by the local Christian Democratic Party, was managed for more than twenty years causing a huge expenditure of money. After a great investment by both the central State and the local bodies (more than 100 millions euro) the project was finally abandoned. This research reconstructs the historical process and the economical motivations that sustained that project until its failure. Moreover, with the aim of understanding the reasons and the differences of such a failure, the history of inland waterway transport in Italy is compared with contemporary developments in Germany.

Identification and characterization of the sRNA network in Neisseria meningitidis

Bacterial small regulatory RNAs (sRNAs) are posttranscriptional regulators involved in stress responses. These short non-coding transcripts are synthesised in response to a signal, and control gene expression of their regulons by modulating the translation or stability of the target mRNAs, often in concert with the RNA chaperone Hfq. Characterization of a Hfq knock out mutant in Neisseria meningitidis revealed that it has a pleiotropic phenotype, suggesting a major role for Hfq in adaptation to stresses and virulence and the presence of Hfq-dependent sRNA activity. Global gene expression analysis of regulated transcripts in the Hfq mutant revealed the presence of a regulated sRNA, incorrectly annotated as an open reading frame, which we renamed AniS. The synthesis of this novel sRNA is anaerobically induced through activation of its promoter by the FNR global regulator and through global gene expression analyses we identified at least two predicted mRNA targets of AniS. We also performed a detailed molecular analysis of the action of the sRNA NrrF,. We demonstrated that NrrF regulates succinate dehydrogenase by forming a duplex with a region of complementarity within the sdhDA region of the succinate dehydrogenase transcript, and Hfq enhances the binding of this sRNA to the identified target in the sdhCDAB mRNA; this is likely to result in rapid turnover of the transcript in vivo. In addition, in order to globally investigate other possible sRNAs of N. meningitdis we Deep-sequenced the transcriptome of this bacterium under both standard in vitro and iron-depleted conditions. This analysis revealed genes that were actively transcribed under the two conditions. We focused our attention on the transcribed non-coding regions of the genome and, along with 5’ and 3’ untranslated regions, 19 novel candidate sRNAs were identified. Further studies will be focused on the identification of the regulatory networks of these sRNAs, and their targets.

Urban food planning, city logistics and sustainability: the role of the wholesale produce market. The cases of Parma and Bologna food hubs.

At global level, the population is increasingly concentrating in the cities. In Europe, around 75% of the population lives in urban areas and, according to the European Environmental Agency (2010), urban population is foreseen to increase up to 80 % by 2020. At the same time, the quality of life in the cities is declining and urban pollution keeps increasing in terms of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, waste, noise, and lack of greenery. Many of European cities struggle to cope with social, economic and environmental problems resulting from pressures such as overcrowding or decline, social inequity, health problems related to food security and pollution. Nowadays local authorities try to solve these problems related to the environmental sustainability through various urban logistics measures, which directly and indirectly affect the urban food supply system, thus an integrated approach including freight transport and food provisioning policies issues is needed. This research centres on the urban food transport system and its impact on the city environmental sustainability. The main question that drives the research analysis is "How the urban food distribution system affects the ecological sustainability in modern cities?" The research analyses the city logistics project for food transport implemented in Parma, Italy, by the wholesale produce market. The case study investigates the renewed role of the wholesale market in the urban food supply chain as commercial and logistic operator, referring to the concept of food hub. Then, a preliminary analysis on the urban food transport for the city of Bologna is presented. The research aims at suggesting a methodological framework to estimate the urban food demand, the urban food supply and to assess the urban food transport performance, in order to identify external costs indicators that help policymakers in evaluating the environmental sustainability of different logistics measures

A projection into the ideas and technologies of "non-place" and "space of flow" in urban context

The meaning of a place has been commonly assigned to the quality of having root (rootedness) or sense of belonging to that setting. While on the contrary, people are nowadays more concerned with the possibilities of free moving and networks of communication. So, the meaning, as well as the materiality of architecture has been dramatically altered with these forces. It is therefore of significance to explore and redefine the sense and the trend of architecture at the age of flow. In this dissertation, initially, we review the gradually changing concept of "place-non-place" and its underlying technological basis. Then we portray the transformation of meaning of architecture as influenced by media and information technology and advanced methods of mobility, in the dawn of 21st century. Against such backdrop, there is a need to sort and analyze architectural practices in response to the triplet of place-non-place and space of flow, which we plan to achieve conclusively. We also trace the concept of flow in the process of formation and transformation of old cities. As a brilliant case study, we look at Persian Bazaar from a socio-architectural point of view. In other word, based on Robert Putnam's theory of social capital, we link social context of the Bazaar with architectural configuration of cities. That is how we believe "cities as flow" are not necessarily a new paradigm.

Global cities, global literature: New York e Tokyo nella narrativa contemporanea

Scopo del lavoro è quello di tracciare un parallelismo tra la narrativa giapponese e angloamericana contemporanea, viste come parte di un sistema di significati che trascende la dimensione nazionale e si installa invece in una dinamica di tipo globale. Le opere letterarie prese in considerazione sono alcune fra quelle ambientate nelle due vere e proprie capitali culturali dei paesi, rispettivamente New York per gli Stati Uniti e Tōkyō per il Giappone. Spunto di partenza dell’analisi è stato il concetto di “global city”, formulato dalla studiosa e sociologa Saskia Sassen, che permette di mettere in relazione dal punto di vista economico, strutturale ma anche sociale le città di New York e Tōkyō. Tale formulazione consente infatti di ragionare in maniera motivata sull’esistenza di un rapporto di flussi di scambio di tipo culturale e, parallelamente, sull’acquisizione di una dimensione di tipo transnazionale di soggetti e tematiche della letteratura. In questo senso, il rapporto tra economia e globalizzazione evidenziato da Sassen può essere paragonato a quello che intercorre tra la letteratura e la globalizzazione. Punto di snodo metodologico del lavoro è rappresentato dall’analisi dello spazio urbano, esaminato sia in chiave urbanistico-architettonica che più specificamente letteraria.

La costruzione della città medievale. Archeologia dell'edilizia storica e topografia urbana a Pistoia.

Pistoia rientra a buon diritto, nel quadro della Toscana medievale, in quella rete di centri urbani di antica origine e tradizione diocesana che riuscirono a costruire, nella dialettica fra città e territorio, un organismo politico autonomo, il comune cittadino. La ricerca prende in considerazione i resti materiali delle strutture conservate nel tessuto urbano attuale, in particolare l'edilizia civile, prediligendo la cosiddetta “edilizia minore”, ovvero gli edifici residenziali non monumentali che, proprio per questo motivo, sono generalmente poco conosciuti. Le strutture, censite ed inserite in una piattaforma GIS (Arpenteur), sono analizzate con metodo archeologico al fine di distinguere le diverse fasi costruttive, medievali e post-medievali, con cui sono giunte fino ad oggi. L'analisi stratigrafica, effettuata su rilievi realizzati mediante modellazione 3D (Photomodeler), ha permesso di costruire un primo “atlante” delle tipologie murarie medievali della città: i tipi murari assumono quindi la funzione di indicatori cronologici degli edifici analizzati. I dati stratigrafici, uniti al dato topologico dei complessi architettonici (localizzati prevalentemente nel centro storico, all'interno del circuito murario della metà del XII secolo), hanno fornito informazioni sia per quanto riguarda l'aspetto materiale degli edifici di abitazione (forma, dimensioni, materiali) sia per quanto riguarda temi di topografia storica (viabilità maggiore e minore, formazione dei borghi, orizzonte sociale degli abitanti, distribuzione della proprietà), nel periodo della “parabola” della Pistoia comunale (XII-XIII secolo). In conclusione, la ricerca vuole essere sia uno strumento di analisi per la storia delle trasformazioni delle città nel periodo comunale, sia uno strumento di conoscenza e tutela di un patrimonio storico-archeologico che, per la sua natura non-monumentale spesso sfugge all'attenzione di amministratori ed urbanisti.

Opportunistic Data Gathering and Dissemination in Urban Scenarios

In the era of the Internet of Everything, a user with a handheld or wearable device equipped with sensing capability has become a producer as well as a consumer of information and services. The more powerful these devices get, the more likely it is that they will generate and share content locally, leading to the presence of distributed information sources and the diminishing role of centralized servers. As of current practice, we rely on infrastructure acting as an intermediary, providing access to the data. However, infrastructure-based connectivity might not always be available or the best alternative. Moreover, it is often the case where the data and the processes acting upon them are of local scopus. Answers to a query about a nearby object, an information source, a process, an experience, an ability, etc. could be answered locally without reliance on infrastructure-based platforms. The data might have temporal validity limited to or bounded to a geographical area and/or the social context where the user is immersed in. In this envisioned scenario users could interact locally without the need for a central authority, hence, the claim of an infrastructure-less, provider-less platform. The data is owned by the users and consulted locally as opposed to the current approach of making them available globally and stay on forever. From a technical viewpoint, this network resembles a Delay/Disruption Tolerant Network where consumers and producers might be spatially and temporally decoupled exchanging information with each other in an adhoc fashion. To this end, we propose some novel data gathering and dissemination strategies for use in urban-wide environments which do not rely on strict infrastructure mediation. While preserving the general aspects of our study and without loss of generality, we focus our attention toward practical applicative scenarios which help us capture the characteristics of opportunistic communication networks.