"Water users must be efficient producers". Women's access to and use of land in Chókwè irrigation scheme, Mozambique

The irrigation scheme Eduardo Mondlane, situated in Chókwè District - in the Southern part of the Gaza province and within the Limpopo River Basin - is the largest in the country, covering approximately 30,000 hectares of land. Built by the Portuguese colonial administration in the 1950s to exploit the agricultural potential of the area through cash-cropping, after Independence it became one of Frelimo’s flagship projects aiming at the “socialization of the countryside” and at agricultural economic development through the creation of a state farm and of several cooperatives. The failure of Frelimo’s economic reforms, several infrastructural constraints and local farmers resistance to collective forms of production led to scheme to a state of severe degradation aggravated by the floods of the year 2000. A project of technical rehabilitation initiated after the floods is currently accompanied by a strong “efficiency” discourse from the managing institution that strongly opposes the use of irrigated land for subsistence agriculture, historically a major livelihood strategy for smallfarmers, particularly for women. In fact, the area has been characterized, since the end of the XIX century, by a stable pattern of male migration towards South African mines, that has resulted in an a steady increase of women-headed households (both de jure and de facto). The relationship between land reform, agricultural development, poverty alleviation and gender equality in Southern Africa is long debated in academic literature. Within this debate, the role of agricultural activities in irrigation schemes is particularly interesting considering that, in a drought-prone area, having access to water for irrigation means increased possibilities of improving food and livelihood security, and income levels. In the case of Chókwè, local governments institutions are endorsing the development of commercial agriculture through initiatives such as partnerships with international cooperation agencies or joint-ventures with private investors. While these business models can sometimes lead to positive outcomes in terms of poverty alleviation, it is important to recognize that decentralization and neoliberal reforms occur in the context of financial and political crisis of the State that lacks the resources to efficiently manage infrastructures such as irrigation systems. This kind of institutional and economic reforms risk accelerating processes of social and economic marginalisation, including landlessness, in particular for poor rural women that mainly use irrigated land for subsistence production. The study combines an analysis of the historical and geographical context with the study of relevant literature and original fieldwork. Fieldwork was conducted between February and June 2007 (where I mainly collected secondary data, maps and statistics and conducted preliminary visit to Chókwè) and from October 2007 to March 2008. Fieldwork methodology was qualitative and used semi-structured interviews with central and local Government officials, technical experts of the irrigation scheme, civil society organisations, international NGOs, rural extensionists, and water users from the irrigation scheme, in particular those women smallfarmers members of local farmers’ associations. Thanks to the collaboration with the Union of Farmers’ Associations of Chókwè, she has been able to participate to members’ meeting, to education and training activities addressed to women farmers members of the Union and to organize a group discussion. In Chókwè irrigation scheme, women account for the 32% of water users of the familiar sector (comprising plot-holders with less than 5 hectares of land) and for just 5% of the private sector. If one considers farmers’ associations of the familiar sector (a legacy of Frelimo’s cooperatives), women are 84% of total members. However, the security given to them by the land title that they have acquired through occupation is severely endangered by the use that they make of land, that is considered as “non efficient” by the irrigation scheme authority. Due to a reduced access to marketing possibilities and to inputs, training, information and credit women, in actual fact, risk to see their right to access land and water revoked because they are not able to sustain the increasing cost of the water fee. The myth of the “efficient producer” does not take into consideration the characteristics of inequality and gender discrimination of the neo-liberal market. Expecting small-farmers, and in particular women, to be able to compete in the globalized agricultural market seems unrealistic, and can perpetuate unequal gendered access to resources such as land and water.

Politiche pubbliche per la stagionalità del turismo da una prospettiva territoriale. Casi di studio in Scozia e in Sardegna

Rita Cannas presents a PhD thesis in Economics (Geo-Economic curriculum) which is titled “Public Policies for Seasonality in Tourism from a Territorial Perspective. Case Studies in Scotland and Sardinia”. The specific area of the research is public policies for contrasting seasonality in tourism in peripheral areas. Seasonality has seen such as a problem in terms of social and economics patterns especially for those local communities which are situated in peripheral areas. The research explores what, how and for who, public policies, that have been in place in Scotland and Sardinia over the last 10-5 years, are working and what kind of results these have produced. The research has empirical and theoretical implications for studying tourism seasonality. It aims to highlight the local supply patterns of the phenomenon investigated, and to improve knowledge about the strategies and the policies that have been adopted in the two territorial contexts (Scotland and Sardinia) for contrasting or modifying seasonality in tourism. The type of subject and the research questions have suggested the adoption of an interpretative theoretical perspective and a qualitative methodological approach, although a set of quantitative secondary data is also required for understanding main tourism's characteristics and for analyzing the specificity of seasonality. Interview with key actors of the local system in Scotland and Sardinia is the method chosen to collect primary data. In total the researcher has done 20 interviews in deep. Case studies are chosen both as unity of analysis and research strategy. The main findings of the research show a different and complex scenario about quality and quantity of public policies and strategies in tourism in the two case studies. The role of local resources is quite strategic on delivering tourism services and on counteracting seasonality. Events, festival are the main demand-side strategies. From a supply-side the principles policies are focused on quality of services, technology, high skills, sustainability. Partnership between public and private sector seems to be a fundamental way to work in order to attain changes and outcomes. The research has a strong research design, provides coherent results, and it has been done paying attention to the validation of the whole process.

Bridging innovation, nature and tradition: assessment of strategies for rural tourism development in Maramureş (Romania)

In the frame of EU rural policy, always more oriented towards environmental concerns and green livelihoods, Romania stands out for the predominance of rural areas and high nature value farming. The country has to face the challenge of joining the modernization process of rural farming systems with the valorization of local assets. Tourism has emerged as one of the main drivers of change and contributors for a sustainable exploitation of local resources. Rural tourism (RT) can foster the enhancement of the territorial capital (TC), the preservation of public goods (PGs) and the promotion of a more environmental oriented livelihood. The research focuses on a case study area, two valleys from Maramureş, where environmental approaches as diversification strategies are partially explored. The work investigates the role of tourism initiatives for the promotion of green oriented practices. The first part of the work is based on a literature review and interdisciplinary analysis of secondary data to identify the key issues: from rural development policy, to the concept of TC, of PGs and RT. The Romanian development programmes and related strategies are investigated; afterwards the characteristics of the County and the role of RT as diversification and valorisation policies is considered. The second part is based on the collection of primary data through interviews to different local stakeholders (farmers owners of rural guesthouses, local administrators, networks and artisans). The main frequencies are analyzed, a cluster analysis is computed to evaluate the similarities within the most representative groups and a comparative analysis is carried out between the two Valleys. The frame of the analysis is based on a set of indicators following the dimensions of the TC, to assess the characteristics of the local stakeholders and to outline the perception about the local PGs and on the adopted strategies to manage the territory. Final considerations are elaborated and few scenarios are outlined, giving relevance to the importance of improving awareness and creating embeddedness among public-private local stakeholders and resources as a tool for a socio-economic and environmental development of the area.

Il processo migratorio come determinante della salute mentale: l'esperienza del Centro di Consultazione Socio-Culturale nel Distretto di Pianura Est, AUSL di Bologna.

La ricerca in oggetto ha analizzato le relazioni tra migrazione e salute mentale nel Distretto di Pianura Est dell'AUSL di Bologna. Attraverso un dispositivo d’indagine multi-disciplinare basato sui quadri teorici dell'Antropologia Medica Critica, della Salute Pubblica e della Psichiatria, la ricerca si è inserita nell’ampio contesto di sperimentazione di un innovativo modello di assistenza per pazienti migranti, denominato Centro di Consultazione Socio- Culturale. L'architettura dello studio si rifà a un modello di Ricerca-Azione Partecipata e Multi-Situata fondato su un approccio analitico e auto-riflessivo, il quale ha consentito di problematizzare, oltre alle azioni e alle traiettorie dei vari soggetti che operano nel campo della ricerca, anche le categorie oggetto della ricerca stessa. L'analisi, profondamente radicata nel dato empirico, è stata condotta a partire dall'esperienza degli attori sociali coinvolti. Le esperienze, le informazioni e le rappresentazioni reciproche sono state co-costruite in forma partecipativa attraverso l'uso combinato di metodologie quali-quantitative proprie sia delle discipline sanitarie sia di quelle sociali. Come materiali della ricerca sono stati utilizzati: dati primari e secondari prodotti dalle istituzioni e dalle organizzazioni del territorio stesso; informazioni provenienti dall'osservazione partecipante; colloqui con informatori-chiave; interviste semi-strutturate con decisori politici, amministratori, organizzazioni del territorio, operatori dei servizi, cittadini e pazienti. La ricerca ha dimostrato la validità delle prospettive teoriche utilizzate e delle strategie di lavoro proposte. Il modello di lavoro multi-disciplinare e multi-metodologico si è rivelato produttivo nell'indagare congiuntamente le prospettive degli attori coinvolti insieme alle loro traiettorie, alle reciproche interconnessioni e alle relazioni tra processi locali e globali. L’analisi auto-riflessiva ha consentito di analizzare le attività del Centro di Consultazione evidenziandone vantaggi e limiti. Infine, la collaborazione tra Salute Pubblica e Antropologia Medica Critica ha dimostrato una grande potenzialità e produttività sia sul versante della ricerca scientifica sia su quello dell'assistenza sanitaria.

Il patrimonio culturale per la dinamizzazione dell'economia territoriale: Il riconoscimento dell'indicazione geografica "Vale do Paraiba Fluminense" ad un caffè con identità culturale

Le Indicazioni Geografiche (IG) giocano un ruolo importante nella crescita economica e nello sviluppo territoriale rurale quando una determinata qualità di prodotto, reputazione o altra caratteristica del prodotto siano attribuibili essenzialmente alla sua origine geografica. In questa ricerca si è verificato la possibilità di valorizzare la regione del Brasile denominata Vale do Paraiba Fluminense, soprannominata “Vale do Café” e di mettere in luce le potenzialità del caffè come prodotto di qualità, sostenibile sotto il profilo ambientale e sociale: un vero e proprio patrimonio culturale che può rivelarsi una valida risorsa economica per il territorio. Nella prima fase dell'indagine è stata realizzata la ricerca a tavolino e sul campo fondata sulle fonti bibliografiche; nella seconda fase è stata applicata la Metodologia Partecipativa della FAO per identificare il collegamento dell’area di origine e del prodotto locale ed il suo potenziale di sviluppo con le risorse locali attraverso questionari on line. Nell’analisi qualitativa sono stati intervistati rappresentanti delle differenti categorie di stakeholder per arricchire il quadro sul contesto storico della regione. Infine, nella parte quantitativa sono stati applicati dei questionari ai consumatori di caffè del territorio. A conclusione della ricerca il territorio potrebbe reintrodurre un caffè storico, simbolo della ricchezza e decadenza di quella regione come elemento di potenziale economico locale, sfruttando la parte immateriale delle aziende agricole storiche, rilocalizzando il prodotto nella memoria locale, riavvicinando la popolazione alla sua storia e principalmente sensibilizzandola del valore del nome geografico “Vale do Paraiba Fluminense” o “Vale do Café” relazionata alla storia della regione, e del prodotto caffè che si propone rilanciare a favore del territorio, rilocalizzando il nome geografico.

Rural governance and livelihoods systems diversification in the Western Balkans: comparative case studies of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Serbia

Agriculture is still important for socio-economic development in rural areas of Bosnia, Montenegro and Serbia (BMS). However, for sustainable rural development rural economies should be diversified so attention should be paid also to off-farm and non-farm income-generating activities. Agricultural and rural development (ARD) processes and farm activity diversification initiatives should be well governed. The ultimate objective of this work is to explore linkages between ARD governance and rural livelihoods diversification in BMS. The thesis is based on an extended secondary data analysis and surveys. Questionnaires for ARD governance and coordination were sent via email to public, civil society and international organizations. Concerning rural livelihood diversification, the field questionnaire surveys were carried out in three rural regions of BMS. Results show that local rural livelihoods are increasingly diversified but a significant share of households are still engaged in agriculture. Diversification strategies have a chance to succeed taking into consideration the three rural regions’ assets. However, rural households have to tackle many problems for developing new income-generating activities such as the lack of financial resources. Weak business skills are also a limiting factor. Fully exploiting rural economy diversification potential in BMS requires many interventions including improving rural governance, enhancing service delivery in rural areas, upgrading rural people’s human capital, strengthening rural social capital and improving physical capital, access of the rural population to finance as well as creating a favourable and enabling legal and legislative environment fostering diversification. Governance and coordination of ARD policy design, implementation and evaluation is still challenging in the three Balkan countries and this has repercussions also on the pace of rural livelihoods diversification. Therefore, there is a strong and urgent need for mobilization of all rural stakeholders and actors through appropriate governance arrangements in order to foster rural livelihoods diversification and quality of life improvement.

Building Peace and/or Gender Equality. Changing Attitudes around Peace, Development and Security in International Cooperation in Rwanda.

The times following international or civil conflicts but also violent revolutions often come with unequal share of the peace dividend for men and women. Delusions for women who gained freedom of movement and of roles during conflict but had to step back during reconstruction and peace have been recorded in all regions of the world. The emergence of peacebuilding as a modality for the international community to ensure peace and security has slowly incorporated gender sensitivity at the level of legal and policy instruments. Focusing on Rwanda, a country that has obtained significant gender advancement in the years after the genocide while also obtaining to not relapse into conflict, this research explores to what extent the international community has contributed to this transformation. From a review of evaluations, findings are that many of the interventions did not purse gender equality, and overall the majority understood gender and designed actions is a quite superficial way which would hardly account for the significative advancement in combating gender discrimination that the Government, for its inner political will, is conducting. Then, after a critique from a feminist standpoint to the concept of human security, departing from the assumption (sustained by the Governemnt of Rwanda as well) that domestic violence is a variable influencing level of security relevant at the national level, a review of available secondary data on GBV is conducted an trends over the years analysed. The emerging trends signal a steep increase in prevalence of GBV and in domestic violence in particular. Although no conclusive interpretation can be formulated on these data, there are elements suggesting the increase might be due to augmented reporting. The research concludes outlining possible further research pathways to better understand the link in Rwanda between the changing gender norms and the GBV.

Learning with Kernels on Graphs: DAG-based kernels, data streams and RNA function prediction.

In many application domains data can be naturally represented as graphs. When the application of analytical solutions for a given problem is unfeasible, machine learning techniques could be a viable way to solve the problem. Classical machine learning techniques are defined for data represented in a vectorial form. Recently some of them have been extended to deal directly with structured data. Among those techniques, kernel methods have shown promising results both from the computational complexity and the predictive performance point of view. Kernel methods allow to avoid an explicit mapping in a vectorial form relying on kernel functions, which informally are functions calculating a similarity measure between two entities. However, the definition of good kernels for graphs is a challenging problem because of the difficulty to find a good tradeoff between computational complexity and expressiveness. Another problem we face is learning on data streams, where a potentially unbounded sequence of data is generated by some sources. There are three main contributions in this thesis. The first contribution is the definition of a new family of kernels for graphs based on Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAGs). We analyzed two kernels from this family, achieving state-of-the-art results from both the computational and the classification point of view on real-world datasets. The second contribution consists in making the application of learning algorithms for streams of graphs feasible. Moreover,we defined a principled way for the memory management. The third contribution is the application of machine learning techniques for structured data to non-coding RNA function prediction. In this setting, the secondary structure is thought to carry relevant information. However, existing methods considering the secondary structure have prohibitively high computational complexity. We propose to apply kernel methods on this domain, obtaining state-of-the-art results.

Secondary Microseisms Characterization and Green’s Function Extraction at the Larderello-Travale Geothermal Field (Italy)

Over the past ten years, the cross-correlation of long-time series of ambient seismic noise (ASN) has been widely adopted to extract the surface-wave part of the Green’s Functions (GF). This stochastic procedure relies on the assumption that ASN wave-field is diffuse and stationary. At frequencies <1Hz, the ASN is mainly composed by surface-waves, whose origin is attributed to the sea-wave climate. Consequently, marked directional properties may be observed, which call for accurate investigation about location and temporal evolution of the ASN-sources before attempting any GF retrieval. Within this general context, this thesis is aimed at a thorough investigation about feasibility and robustness of the noise-based methods toward the imaging of complex geological structures at the local (∼10-50km) scale. The study focused on the analysis of an extended (11 months) seismological data set collected at the Larderello-Travale geothermal field (Italy), an area for which the underground geological structures are well-constrained thanks to decades of geothermal exploration. Focusing on the secondary microseism band (SM;f>0.1Hz), I first investigate the spectral features and the kinematic properties of the noise wavefield using beamforming analysis, highlighting a marked variability with time and frequency. For the 0.1-0.3Hz frequency band and during Spring- Summer-time, the SMs waves propagate with high apparent velocities and from well-defined directions, likely associated with ocean-storms in the south- ern hemisphere. Conversely, at frequencies >0.3Hz the distribution of back- azimuths is more scattered, thus indicating that this frequency-band is the most appropriate for the application of stochastic techniques. For this latter frequency interval, I tested two correlation-based methods, acting in the time (NCF) and frequency (modified-SPAC) domains, respectively yielding esti- mates of the group- and phase-velocity dispersions. Velocity data provided by the two methods are markedly discordant; comparison with independent geological and geophysical constraints suggests that NCF results are more robust and reliable.