Advanced cell culture platforms: methods for drug testing with microfluidics and microstructured devices

Advanced cell cultures are developing rapidly in biomedical research. Nowadays, various approaches and technologies are being used, however, these culturing systems present limitations from increasing complexity, requiring high costs, and not easily customization. We present two versatile and cost-effective methods for developing culturing systems that integrate 3D cell culture and microfluidic platforms. Firstly, for drug screening applications, many high-quality cell spheres of homogeneous size and shape are required. Conventional approaches usually have a dearth of control over the size and geometry of cell spheres and require sample collection and manipulation. To overcome this difficulty, in this study, hundreds of spheroids of several cell lines were generated using multi-well plates that housed our microdevices. Tumor spheroids grow at a uniform rate (in scaffolded or scaffold-free environments) and can be harvested at will. Microscopy imaging are done in real time during or after the culture. After in situ immunostaining, fluorescence imaging can be conducted while keeping the spatial distribution of spheroids in the microwells. Drug effects were successfully observed through viability, growth, and morphologic investigations. Also, we fabricated a microfluidic device suitable for directed and selective cell culture treatments. The microfluidic device was used to reproduce and confirm in vitro investigations carried out using normal culture methods, using a microglia cell line. The device layout and the syringe pump system, entirely designed in our lab, successfully allowed culture growth and medium flow regulation. Solution flows can be finely controlled, allowing treatments and immunofluorescence in one single chamber selectively. To conclude, we propose the development of two culturing platforms (microstructured well devices and in-flow microfluidic chip), which are the result of separate scientific investigations but have the primary goal of performing treatments in a reproducible manner. Our devices shall improve future studies on drug exposure testing, representing adjustable and versatile cell culture systems.

Design of experiment in drug development: optimal allocations in multi-arm clinical trials and design space for multi-step processes

In this thesis, we deal with the design of experiments in the drug development process, focusing on the design of clinical trials for treatment comparisons (Part I) and the design of preclinical laboratory experiments for proteins development and manufacturing (Part II). In Part I we propose a multi-purpose design methodology for sequential clinical trials. We derived optimal allocations of patients to treatments for testing the efficacy of several experimental groups by also taking into account ethical considerations. We first consider exponential responses for survival trials and we then present a unified framework for heteroscedastic experimental groups that encompasses the general ANOVA set-up. The very good performance of the suggested optimal allocations, in terms of both inferential and ethical characteristics, are illustrated analytically and through several numerical examples, also performing comparisons with other designs proposed in the literature. Part II concerns the planning of experiments for processes composed of multiple steps in the context of preclinical drug development and manufacturing. Following the Quality by Design paradigm, the objective of the multi-step design strategy is the definition of the manufacturing design space of the whole process and, as we consider the interactions among the subsequent steps, our proposal ensures the quality and the safety of the final product, by enabling more flexibility and process robustness in the manufacturing.

Droga, alcol e lavoro: La prevenzione come promozione della salute

Lo scopo di questa dissertazione è quello di costruire un modello di promozione della salute nel contesto di lavoro in relazione al consumo di sostanze psicoattive fra lavoratori, attraverso il confronto tra la situazione italiana e inglese. L’ipotesi di fondo rimanda all’idea che i luoghi di lavoro possano rappresentare setting d’elezione per i progetti di prevenzione non solo perché alcuni studi dimostrano l’esistenza di fattori di rischio connessi alla mansione rispetto alle condotte relative allo stile di vita, ma anche perché il consumo di alcol e droghe è altamente diffuso tra i lavoratori e questo comporta rischi per la sicurezza e la salute personale nonché quella dei colleghi di lavoro. Si tratta quindi di indagare il rapporto tra contesto lavorativo e utilizzo di sostanze al fine di suggerire  alla luce degli studi internazionali in materia e delle riflessioni condotte dai soggetti coinvolti nella ricerca che si andrà a presentare  linee guida e indicazioni operative per la realizzazione di interventi di promozione alla salute nei contesti professionali. A tal fine, saranno analizzati gli esiti di 13 focus group che hanno coinvolto esperti italiani e 6 interviste somministrate a esperti inglesi volti a definire la situazione attuale in Italia e Gran Bretagna in materia di prevenzione del consumo di alcol e droghe nei luoghi di lavoro. In particolare, l’analisi verterà sulle seguenti aree: - Percezione circa la diffusione dei consumi nei luoghi di lavoro - Presentazione delle politiche adottate, in logica comparativa, tra i due paesi. - Analisi critica degli interventi e problematiche aperte. L’analisi del materiale empirico permette di delineare due modelli costruiti sulla base dei focus group e delle interviste: - in Italia si può affermare che prevalga il cd. modello della sicurezza: di recente trasformazione, questo sistema enfatizza la dimensione del controllo, tanto che si parla di sorveglianza sanitaria. É orientato alla sicurezza concepita quale rimozione dei fattori di rischio. Il consumo di sostanze (anche sporadico) è inteso quale espressione di una patologia che richiede l’intervento sanitario secondo modalità previste dal quadro normativo: una procedura che annulla la discrezionalità sia del datore di lavoro sia del medico competente. Si connota inoltre per contraddizioni interne e trasversali rispetto alle categorie lavorative (i controlli non si applicano alle professioni associate a maggiore prestigio sociale sebbene palesemente associate a rischio, come per esempio i medici) e alle sostanze (atteggiamento repressivo soprattutto verso le droghe illegali); - in Gran Bretagna, invece, il modello si configura come responsabilità bilaterale: secondo questo modello, se è vero che il datore di lavoro può decidere in merito all’attuazione di misure preventive in materia di alcol e droghe nei luoghi di lavoro, egli è ritenuto responsabile della mancata vigilanza. D’altro canto, il lavoratore che non rispetta quanto previsto nella politica scritta può essere soggetto a licenziamento per motivi disciplinari. Questo modello, particolarmente attento al consumo di tutte le sostanze psicoattive (legali e illegali), considera il consumo quale esito di una libera scelta individuale attraverso la quale il lavoratore decide di consumare alcol e droghe così come decide di dedicarsi ad altre condotte a rischio. Si propone di ri-orientare le strategie analizzate nei due paesi europei presi in esame attraverso la realizzazione di un modello della promozione della salute fondato su alcuni punti chiave: – coinvolgimento di tutti i lavoratori (e non solo coloro che svolgono mansioni a rischio per la sicurezza) al fine di promuovere benessere secondo un approccio olistico di salute, orientato ad intervenire non soltanto in materia di consumo di sostanze psicoattive (legali e illegali), ma più in generale sulle condotte a rischio; – compartecipazione nelle diverse fasi (programmazione, realizzazione e valutazione del progetto) del lavoratore, datore di lavoro e medico competente secondo una logica di flessibilità, responsabilizzazione condivisa fra i diversi attori, personalizzazione e co-gestione dell’intervento; – azione volta a promuovere i fattori di protezione agendo simultaneamente sul contrasto dei fattori di rischio (stress, alienazione, scarso riconoscimento del ruolo svolto), attraverso interventi che integrano diverse strategie operative alla luce delle evidenze scientifiche (Evidence-Based Prevention); – ricorso a strumenti di controllo (drug testing) subordinato all’esigenza di tutelare l’incolumità fisica del lavoratore e dei colleghi, da attuarsi sempre e comunque attraverso prassi che non violino la privacy e attraverso strumenti in grado di verificare l’effettivo stato di alterazione psico-fisica sul luogo di lavoro; – demedicalizzazione delle situazioni di consumo che non richiedono un intervento prettamente sanitario, ma che al contrario potrebbero essere affrontate attraverso azioni incentrate sul care anziché la cure; – messa a disposizione di servizi ad hoc con funzione di supporto, counselling, orientamento per i lavoratori, non stigmatizzanti e con operatori di formazione non solamente sanitaria, sull’esempio degli EAPs (Employee Assistence Programs) statunitensi. Si ritiene che questo modello possa trasformare i contesti di lavoro da agenzie di controllo orientate alla sicurezza a luoghi di intervento orientati al benessere attraverso un’azione sinergica e congiunta volta a promuovere i fattori di protezione a discapito di quelli di rischio in modo tale da intervenire non soltanto sul consumo di sostanze psicotrope, ma più in generale sullo stile di vita che influenza la salute complessiva.

Anticancer drug screening from images of zebrafish embryogenesis

During the previous 10 years, global R&D expenditure in the pharmaceuticals and biotechnology sector has steadily increased, without a corresponding increase in output of new medicines. To address this situation, the biopharmaceutical industry's greatest need is to predict the failures at the earliest possible stage of the drug development process. A major key to reducing failures in drug screenings is the development and use of preclinical models that are more predictive of efficacy and safety in clinical trials. Further, relevant animal models are needed to allow a wider testing of novel hypotheses. Key to this is the developing, refining, and validating of complex animal models that directly link therapeutic targets to the phenotype of disease, allowing earlier prediction of human response to medicines and identification of safety biomarkers. Morehover, well-designed animal studies are essential to bridge the gap between test in cell cultures and people. Zebrafish is emerging, complementary to other models, as a powerful system for cancer studies and drugs discovery. We aim to investigate this research area designing a new preclinical cancer model based on the in vivo imaging of zebrafish embryogenesis. Technological advances in imaging have made it feasible to acquire nondestructive in vivo images of fluorescently labeled structures, such as cell nuclei and membranes, throughout early Zebrafishsh embryogenesis. This In vivo image-based investigation provides measurements for a large number of features at cellular level and events including nuclei movements, cells counting, and mitosis detection, thereby enabling the estimation of more significant parameters such as proliferation rate, highly relevant for investigating anticancer drug effects. In this work, we designed a standardized procedure for accessing drug activity at the cellular level in live zebrafish embryos. The procedure includes methodologies and tools that combine imaging and fully automated measurements of embryonic cell proliferation rate. We achieved proliferation rate estimation through the automatic classification and density measurement of epithelial enveloping layer and deep layer cells. Automatic embryonic cells classification provides the bases to measure the variability of relevant parameters, such as cell density, in different classes of cells and is finalized to the estimation of efficacy and selectivity of anticancer drugs. Through these methodologies we were able to evaluate and to measure in vivo the therapeutic potential and overall toxicity of Dbait and Irinotecan anticancer molecules. Results achieved on these anticancer molecules are presented and discussed; furthermore, extensive accuracy measurements are provided to investigate the robustness of the proposed procedure. Altogether, these observations indicate that zebrafish embryo can be a useful and cost-effective alternative to some mammalian models for the preclinical test of anticancer drugs and it might also provides, in the near future, opportunities to accelerate the process of drug discovery.

A preclinical study of spinal cord injury focused on cellular and molecular modifications as potential targets for innovative therapies

Spinal Cord Injury (SCI) is a devastating condition for human and animal health. In SCI particularly, neurons, oligodendrocytes precursor cells, and mature oligodendrocytes are highly vulnerable to the toxic microenvironment after the lesion and susceptible to the elevated levels of noxious stimuli. Thus the regenerative response of the organism in case of SCI is significantly reduced, and only little spontaneous amelioration is observed in lesioned patients during the early phases. This work mainly focuses on studying and characterizing the modification induced by the SCI in a preclinical animal model. We investigated the ECM composition in the spinal cord segments surrounding the primary lesion site at a gene expression level. We found Timp1 and CD44 as a crucial hub in the secondary cascade of SCI in both spinal cord segments surrounding the lesion site. Interestingly, a temporal and anatomical difference in gene expression, indicating a complex regulation of ECM genes after SCI that could be used as a tool for regenerative medicine. We also investigated the modification in synaptic plasticity-related gene expression in spinal and supraspinal areas involved in motor control. We confirmed the anatomical and temporal difference in gene expression in spinal cord tissue. This analysis suggests that a molecular mapping of the lesion-induced modification could be a useful tool for regenerative medicine. In the last part, we evaluated the efficacy of an implantable biopolymer loaded with an anti-inflammatory drug and a pro-myelinating agent on the acute phase of SCI in our preclinical model. We found a consistent reduction of the inflammatory state in the spinal lesion site and the cord's surrounding segments. Moreover, we found increased preservation of the spinal cord tissue with a related upregulation of neuronal and oligodendroglial markers after lesion. Our treatment showed effective ameliorating functional outcome and reducing the lesion extension in the chronic phase.

Preclinical studies of the combined effect of anti-MYCN PNA and Retinoic Acid as potential approach to treat Neuroblastoma

Neuroblastoma (NB) is the deadliest cancer in early childhood. Around 25% of patients pre- sent MYCN-amplification (MNA) which is linked to poor prognosis, metastasis, and therapy- resistance. While retinoic acid (RA) is beneficial only for some NB patients, the cause of its resistance is still unknown. Thus, there remains a need for new therapies to treat NB. I show that MYCN-specific inhibition by the antigene oligonucleotide BGA002 in combination with 13-cis RA (BGA002-RA) overcome resistance in MNA-NB cell lines, leading to potent MYCN mRNA expression and protein decrease. Moreover, BGA002-RA reactivated neuron differentiation or led to apoptosis in MNA-NB cell lines, and inhibited invasiveness capacity. Since NB and PI3K/mTOR pathway are strictly related MYCN down-regulation by BGA002 led to mTOR pathway inhibition in MNA-NB, that was strengthened by BGA002-RA. I further analyzed if MYCN silencing may induce autophagy reactivation, and indeed BGA002-RA caused a massive increase in lysosomes and macrovacuoles in MNA-NB cells. In addition, while MYCN is known to induce angiogenesis, BGA002-RA in vivo treatment elim- inated the tumor vascularization in a MNA-NB mice model, and significantly increased the survival. Overall, these results indicate that MYCN modulation mediates the therapeutic efficacy of RA and the development of RA resistance in MNA-NB. Furthermore, by targeting MYCN, we show a cancer-specific way of mTOR pathway inhibition only in MNA-NB, avoiding side effects of targeting mTOR in normal cells. These findings warrant clinical testing of BGA002-RA as a potential strategy to overcome RA resistance in MNA-NB.

Acquired and inherited cardiomyopathies: evaluation of cardiotoxic effects in preclinical models

Cardiomyopathies are a heterogeneous group of myocardial disorders defined by structural and functional alterations of the heart. These cardiac diseases can have both non-genetic and genetic origin. Nevertheless, a different etiology can trigger the same phenotype, as in the case of anthracycline-induced cardiotoxicity and desmin-related cardiomyopathy (DRM). Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the cellular mechanisms driving the development of these cardiotoxic conditions in in vitro models. Doxorubicin (DOX) is a commonly used antineoplastic drug for the treatment of a wide range of tumors. Besides, its clinical use is restricted because of dose-dependent cardiotoxicity. Our findings provided evidence that phospholipase C Beta 2 (PLCβ2) may have a critical role in DOX-induced cardiotoxicity in undifferentiated and differentiated H9c2 cell line. Interestingly, the results obtained revealed that cardiomyocytes are less sensitive to DOX, following the evaluation of cellular mechanisms such as: oxidative stress, apoptosis and cell proliferation. Nonetheless, the treatment induced a significant upregulation of PLCβ2 associated to morphological changes in both models, demonstrating the implication in a hypertrophic response. On the other hand, a hereditary DRM was associated to a missense mutation of aB crystallin (CRYAB), a chaperone protein involved in the regulation of the intermediate filament network. Since research has only been conducted on transgenic (TG) mice and neonatal rat cardiomyocytes, this study aimed at investigating cellular mechanisms triggered by CRYABR120G mutation in a hiPSC-derived DRM model. Our model confirmed the impairment of the cytoskeletal organization resulting in the formation of desmin and CRYAB aggregates and myofibril misalignment. Moreover, the missense mutation confirmed a hypertrophic cardiomyopathy phenotype, a feature of DRM patients, on cardiac engineered tissues. Lastly, these data obtained suggest that further research on PLCβ2 and CRYAB are needed to comprehend the molecular mechanisms behind the development of these 2 cardiac diseases.

Preclinical evaluation of a MYCN-specific inhibitor for the treatment of small cell lung cancer

Small cell lung cancer (SCLC) is the most aggressive form of lung cancer, characterized by rapid growth, early metastasis and acquired drug resistance. SCLC is usually sensitive to initial treatment, however, most patients relapse within few months; thus more effective therapies are urgently needed. Key genetic alterations very frequently observed in SCLC include loss of TP53 and RB1 and mutations in the MYC family genes (MYC, MYCL or MYCN). One of them is amplified and overexpressed in a mutually exclusive manner and represents the most prominent activating oncogene alteration in this malignancy. In particular, MYCN amplification is associated with tumor progression, treatment failure and poor prognosis. Given the role of MYCN in SCLC and its restricted expression profile, MYCN represents a promising therapeutic target; although it is considered undruggable by traditional approaches. An innovative approach to target the oncogene concerns specific MYCN expression inhibition, acting directly at the level of DNA, through an antigene peptide nucleic acid (agPNA) oligonucleotide, called BGA002. This thesis focused on the study of BGA002, as a possible targeted therapeutic strategy for the treatment of MYCN-related SCLC. In this context, BGA002 proved to be a specific and highly effective inhibitor. Furthermore, MYCN silencing induced alterations in many downstream pathways and led to apoptosis, in concomitance with autophagy reactivation. Moreover, systemic administration of BGA002 was effective in vivo as well, significantly increasing survival in MNA mouse models, even in the scenario of multidrug-resistance. In addition, BGA002 treatment successfully reduced N-Myc protein expression and, more importantly, caused a massive diminishment in tumor vascularization in the multidrug-resistant model. Overall, these results proved that MYCN inhibition by BGA002 may represent a new promising precision medicine approach, to treat MYCN-related SCLC.