Preclinical development of cancer vaccines

Triplex cell vaccine is a cancer immunopreventive cell vaccine that can prevent almost completely mammary tumor onset in HER-2/neu transgenic mice. A future translation of cancer immunoprevention from preclinical to clinical studies should take into account several aspects. The work reported in this thesis deals with the study of three of these aspects: vaccine schedule, activity in a therapeutic set-up and second-generation DNA vaccines. An important element in determining human acceptance and compliance of a treatment protocol is the number of vaccinations. In order to improve the vaccination schedule a minimal protocol was searched, i.e. a schedule consisting of a lower number of administrations than standard protocol but with a similar efficacy. A candidate optimal protocol was identified by the use of an in silico model, SimTriplex simulator. The in vivo test of this schedule in HER-2/neu transgenic mice only partially confirmed in silico predictions. This result shows that in silico models have the potential ability to aid in searching of optimal treatment protocols, provided that they will be further tuned on experimental data. As a further result this preclinical study highlighted that kinetic of antibody response plays a major role in determining cancer prevention, leading to the hypothesis of a threshold that must be reached rapidly and maintained lifetime. Early clinical trials would be performed in a therapeutic, rather than preventive, setting. Thus, the activity of Triplex vaccine was investigated against experimental lung metastases in HER-2/neu transgenic mice in order to evaluate if the immunopreventive Triplex vaccine could be effective also against a pre-existing tumor mass. This preclinical model of aggressive metastatic development showed that the vaccine was an efficient treatment also 4 for the cure of micrometastases. However the immune mechanisms activated against tumor mass were not antibody dependent, i.e. different from those preventing the onset of primary mammary carcinoma. DNA vaccines could be more easily used than cellular ones. A second generation of Triplex vaccine based on DNA plasmids was evaluated in an aggressive preclinical model (BALBp53neu female mice) and compared with the preventive ability of cellular Triplex vaccine. It was observed that Triplex DNA vaccine was as effective as Triplex cell vaccine, exploiting a more restricted immune stimulation.

Biomimetic Scaffolds for the Controlled Release of Bioactive Molecules for Tissue Engineering Applications

The temporospatial controlled delivery of growth factors is crucial to trigger the desired healing mechanisms in target tissues. The uncontrolled release of growth factors has been demonstrated to cause severe side effects in its surrounding tissues. Thus, the first working hypothesis was to tune and optimize a newly developed multiscale delivery platform based on a nanostructured silicon particle core (pSi) and a poly (dl-lactide-co-glycolide) acid (PLGA) outer shell. In a murine subcutaneous model, the platform was demonstrated to be fully tunable for the temporal and spatial control release of the payload. Secondly, a multiscale approach was followed in a multicompartment collagen scaffold, to selectively integrate different sets of PLGA-pSi loaded with different reporter proteins. The spatial confinement of the microspheres allowed the release of the reporter proteins in each of the layers of the scaffold. Finally, the staged and zero-order release kinetics enabled the temporal biochemical patterning of the scaffold. The last step of this PhD project was to test if by fully embedding PLGA microspheres in a highly structured and fibrous collagen-based scaffold (camouflaging), it was possible to prevent their early detection and clearance by macrophages. It was further studied whether such a camouflaging strategy was efficient in reducing the production of key inflammatory molecules, while preserving the release kinetics of the payload of the PLGA microspheres. Results demonstrated that the camouflaging allowed for a 10-fold decrease in the number of PLGA microspheres internalized by macrophages, suggesting that the 3D scaffold operated by cloaking the PLGA microspheres. When the production of key inflammatory cytokines induced by the scaffold was assessed, macrophages' response to the PLGA microspheres-integrated scaffolds resulted in a response similar to that observed in the control (not functionalized scaffold) and the release kinetic of a reporter protein was preserved.

Effect of pulsed electromagnetic fields (pemfs) on muscle activity, tissue oxygenation and vo2 during exercise.

PEMF are a medical and non-invasive therapy successfully used for clinical treatments of bone disease, due to the piezoelectric effect that improve bone mass and density, by the stimulation of osteoblastogenesis, with modulation of calcium storages and mineral metabolism. PEMF enhance tissue oxygenation, microcirculation and angiogenesis, in rats and cells erythrocytes, in cells-free assay. Such responses could be caused by a modulation of nitric oxide signal and interaction between PEMF and Ca2+/NO/cGMP/PKG signal. PEMF improve blood flow velocity of smallest vein without changing their diameter. PEMF therapy helpful in patients with diabetes, due to increased microcirculation trough enhance capillary blood velocity and diameter. We investigated the influence of stimulation on muscular activity, tissue oxygenation and pulmonary VO2, during exercise, on different intensity, as heavy or moderate, different subjects, as a athlete or sedentary, and different sport activity, as a cycling or weightlifting. In athletes, we observed a tendency for a greater change and a faster kinetic of HHb concentration. PEMF increased the velocity and the quantity of muscle O2 available, leading to accelerate the HHb kinetics. Stimulation induced a bulk muscle O2 availability and a greater muscle O2 extraction, leading to a reduced time delay of the HHb slow component. Stimulation increased the amplitude of muscle activity under different conditions, likely caused by the effect of PEMF on contraction mechanism of muscular fibers, by the change of membrane permeability and Ca2+ channel conduction. In athletes, we observed an increase of overall activity during warm-up. In sedentary people, stimulation increased the magnitude of muscle activity during moderate constant-load exercise and warm-up. In athletes and weightlifters, stimulation caused an increase of blood lactate concentration during exercise, confirming a possible influence of stimulation on muscle activity and on glycolytic metabolism of type-II muscular fibers.

Marcatura di molecole biologiche a funzione antigenica per lo studio e la caratterizzazione di protocolli di vaccinoterapia in oncologia medica

Dendritic Cells (DCs) derived from human blood monocytes that have been nurtured in GM-CSF and IL-4, followed by maturation in a monocyte-conditioned medium, are the most potent APCs known. These DCs have many features of primary DCs, including the expression of molecules that enhance antigen capture and selective receptors that guide DCs to and from several sites in the body, where they elicit the T cell mediated immune response. For these features, immature DCs (iDC) loaded with tumor antigen and matured (mDC) with a standard cytokine cocktail, are used for therapeutic vaccination in clinical trials of different cancers. However, the efficacy of DCs in the development of immunocompetence is critically influenced by the type (whole lysate, proteins, peptides, mRNA), the amount and the time of exposure of the tumor antigens used for loading in the presentation phase. The aim of the present study was to create instruments to acquire more information about DC antigen uptake and presentation mechanisms to improve the clinical efficacy of DCbased vaccine. In particular, two different tumor antigen were studied: the monoclonal immunoglobulin (IgG or IgA) produced in Myeloma Multiple, and the whole lysate obtained from melanoma tissues. These proteins were conjugated with fluorescent probe (FITC) to evaluate the kinetic of tumor antigen capturing process and its localization into DCs, by cytofluorimetric and fluorescence microscopy analysis, respectively. iDC pulsed with 100μg of IgG-FITC/106 cells were monitored from 2 to 22 hours after loading. By the cytofluorimetric analysis it was observed that the monoclonal antibody was completely captured after 2 hours from pulsing, and was decreased into mDC in 5 hours after maturation stimulus. To monitor the lysate uptake, iDC were pulsed with 80μg of tumor lysate/106 cells, then were monitored in the 2h to 22 hours interval time after loading. Then, to reveal difference between increasing lysate concentration, iDC were loaded with 20-40-80-100-200-400μg of tumor lysate/106 cells and monitored at 2-4-8-13h from pulsing. By the cytofluorimetric analysis, it was observed that, the 20-40-80-100μg uptake, after 8 hours loading was completed reaching a plateau phase. For 200 and 400μg the mean fluorescence of cells increased until 13h from pulsing. The lysate localization into iDC was evaluated with conventional and confocal fluorescence microscopy analysis. In the 2h to 8h time interval from loading an intensive and diffuse fluorescence was observed within the cytoplasmic compartment. Moreover, after 8h, the lysate fluorescence appeared to be organized in a restricted cloudy-shaded area with a typical polarized aspect. In addition, small fluorescent spots clearly appeared with an increment in the number and fluorescence intensity. The nature of these spot-like formations and cloudy area is now being investigated detecting the colocalization of the fluorescence lysate and specific markers for lysosomes, autophagosomes, endoplasmic reticulum and MHCII positive vesicles.

Lesion detection and classification in breast cancer: evaluation of approaches based on morphological features, tracer kinetic modelling and semi-quantitative parameters in MR functional imaging (DCE-MRI)

The diagnosis, grading and classification of tumours has benefited considerably from the development of DCE-MRI which is now essential to the adequate clinical management of many tumour types due to its capability in detecting active angiogenesis. Several strategies have been proposed for DCE-MRI evaluation. Visual inspection of contrast agent concentration curves vs time is a very simple yet operator dependent procedure, therefore more objective approaches have been developed in order to facilitate comparison between studies. In so called model free approaches, descriptive or heuristic information extracted from time series raw data have been used for tissue classification. The main issue concerning these schemes is that they have not a direct interpretation in terms of physiological properties of the tissues. On the other hand, model based investigations typically involve compartmental tracer kinetic modelling and pixel-by-pixel estimation of kinetic parameters via non-linear regression applied on region of interests opportunely selected by the physician. This approach has the advantage to provide parameters directly related to the pathophysiological properties of the tissue such as vessel permeability, local regional blood flow, extraction fraction, concentration gradient between plasma and extravascular-extracellular space. Anyway, nonlinear modelling is computational demanding and the accuracy of the estimates can be affected by the signal-to-noise ratio and by the initial solutions. The principal aim of this thesis is investigate the use of semi-quantitative and quantitative parameters for segmentation and classification of breast lesion. The objectives can be subdivided as follow: describe the principal techniques to evaluate time intensity curve in DCE-MRI with focus on kinetic model proposed in literature; to evaluate the influence in parametrization choice for a classic bi-compartmental kinetic models; to evaluate the performance of a method for simultaneous tracer kinetic modelling and pixel classification; to evaluate performance of machine learning techniques training for segmentation and classification of breast lesion.

Structural and kinetic characterization of DNA polymerases I and III from Escherichia coli

DNA elongation is performed by Pol III α subunit in E. coli, stimulated by the association with ε and θ subunits. These three subunits define the DNA Pol III catalytic core. There is controversy about the DNA Pol III assembly for the simultaneous control of lagging and leading strands replication, since some Authors propose a dimeric model with two cores, whereas others have assembled in vitro a trimeric DNA Pol III with a third catalytic core, which increases the efficiency of DNA replication. Moreover, the function of the PHP domain, located at the N-terminus of α subunit, is still unknown. Previous studies hypothesized a possible pyrophosphatase activity, not confirmed yet. The present Thesis highlights by the first time the production in vivo of a trimeric E. coli DNA Pol III by co-expressing α, τ, ε and θ subunits. This trimeric complex has been enzymatically characterized and a molecular model has been proposed, with 2 α subunits sustaining the lagging-strand replication whereas the third core replicates the leading strand. In addition, the pyrophosphatase activity of the PHP domain has been confirmed. This activity involves, at least, the H12 and the D19 residues, whereas the D201 regulates phosphate release. On the other hand, an artificial polymerase (HoLaMa), designed by deleting the exonuclease domain of Klenow Fragment, has been expressed, purified and characterized for a better understanding of bacterial polymerases mechanism. The absence of exonuclease domain impaired enzyme processivity, since this domain is involved in DNA binding. Finally, Klenow enzyme, HoLaMa, α subunit and DNA Pol III αεθ have been characterized at the single-molecule level by FRET analysis, combining ALEX and TIRF microscopy. Fluorescently-labeled DNA molecules were immobilized, and changes in FRET efficiency enabled us to study polymerase binding and DNA polymerization.

Kinetic and mechanistic studies on unconventional antioxidant activities of natural compounds

In chapter one, the autoxidation kinetics of natural oil substrates, including, triglyceric sunflower oil, olive oil, terpenic squalene, and p-cymene were calibrated through differential oximetry methods. Calibration allows their use as reference oxidizable substrates for further studies, e.g. for quantitative testing of antioxidants under biomimetic settings. Several essential oils samples, of different botanical species or different productions of same species were studied for their antioxidant activity in inhibited autoxidation kinetics. Their antioxidant activities were matched with their composition analyzed by GC-MS. In chapter two, the molecular mechanism of the synergy between the common phenolic antioxidants such as tocopherol and catechols with widespread essential component gamma-terpinene was studied through lipid oxidation kinetics. Wherein, gamma-terpinene was able to disclose the key intermediacy HOO·, which acted as a reducing agent regenerating the phenolic antioxidant. This counterintuitive role of HOO· radicals was further investigated in detail and allowed to rationalize for the first time the purported antioxidant behavior of PDA melanin nanoparticles. It will also open to a deeper understanding of the redox biology of quinones. Regarding melanin, its role is broadly important in living organisms and its control, including its inhibition, is of great importance with several relevant applications ranging from food preservation to control of human skin pigmentation. In chapter three, an oximetry method combined with the traditional UV-Vis spectroscopy was developed to study the tyrosinase inhibition kinetics, which allowed identifying Glabridin (from G. glabra, L.), as one of the most effective natural tyrosinase inhibitors.

Kinetic and mechanistic studies on peroxidation and stabilization of lipids with industrial and biological relevance

Lipid peroxidation is a complex mechanism that causes the degradation of lipid material of both industrial and biological significance. During processing, it is known that thermal stress produces oxidation and polymerization of oils. Additionally, biological lipids with both structural and bioactive roles are prone to peroxidation, which can have pathogenic effects including cancer and long-term degenerative disorders. To create innovative strategies to slow down the deterioration of lipids, it is crucial to improve our understanding of oxidation reactions and kinetics. To this purpose, Chapter II of this thesis focuses on the kinetic study of the oxidation reactions that take place during the thermal processing of bio-oils for industrial application. Through a new method it was possible to evaluate the kinetic parameters of oxidation of various lipid materials. This allowed us to distinguish between the different lipid materials based on their intrinsic properties. The effect of 18 antioxidants from the major families of natural and synthetic phenols were studied using the same methodology in order to acquire crucial data for enhancing the antioxidant activity of phenols based on structure-activity at high temperatures. Finally, it has been described how the antioxidant activity of α-tocopherol, revealed to be scarce in our conditions, can be improved in the presence of gamma-terpinene, through a synergistic action. Chapter III describes the synthesis and study of the antioxidant activity of polydopamine nanoparticles, in order to clarify the unclear mechanism of action of this material. Finally, in Chapter IV it was reported how the gamma-terpinene strongly inhibits the peroxidation of unsaturated lipids in heterogeneous model systems (micelles and liposomes) by forming hydroperoxyl radicals which diffuse outside the lipid nucleus, blocking the propagation of the chain radical. Furthermore, gamma-terpinene shows a very potent protective activity against ferroptosis being effective in the nanomolar range in the human neuroblastoma cell model.