Nutritional strategies to control mycotoxin damages in swine

Mycotoxins are contaminants of agricultural products both in the field and during storage and can enter the food chain through contaminated cereals and foods (milk, meat, and eggs) obtained from animals fed mycotoxin contaminated feeds. Mycotoxins are genotoxic carcinogens that cause health and economic problems. Ochratoxin A and fumonisin B1 have been classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer in 1993, as “possibly carcinogenic to humans” (class 2B). To control mycotoxins induced damages, different strategies have been developed to reduce the growth of mycotoxigenic fungi as well as to decontaminate and/or detoxify mycotoxin contaminated foods and animal feeds. Critical points, target for these strategies, are: prevention of mycotoxin contamination, detoxification of mycotoxins already present in food and feed, inhibition of mycotoxin absorption in the gastrointestinal tract, reduce mycotoxin induced damages when absorption occurs. Decontamination processes, as indicate by FAO, needs the following requisites to reduce toxic and economic impact of mycotoxins: it must destroy, inactivate, or remove mycotoxins; it must not produce or leave toxic and/or carcinogenic/mutagenic residues in the final products or in food products obtained from animals fed decontaminated feed; it must be capable of destroying fungal spores and mycelium in order to avoiding mycotoxin formation under favorable conditions; it should not adversely affect desirable physical and sensory properties of the feedstuff; it has to be technically and economically feasible. One important approach to the prevention of mycotoxicosis in livestock is the addition in the diets of the non-nutritionally adsorbents that bind mycotoxins preventing the absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. Activated carbons, hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate (HSCAS), zeolites, bentonites, and certain clays, are the most studied adsorbent and they possess a high affinity for mycotoxins. In recent years, there has been increasing interest on the hypothesis that the absorption in consumed food can be inhibited by microorganisms in the gastrointestinal tract. Numerous investigators showed that some dairy strains of LAB and bifidobacteria were able to bind aflatoxins effectively. There is a strong need for prevention of the mycotoxin-induced damages once the toxin is ingested. Nutritional approaches, such as supplementation of nutrients, food components, or additives with protective effects against mycotoxin toxicity are assuming increasing interest. Since mycotoxins have been known to produce damages by increasing oxidative stress, the protective properties of antioxidant substances have been extensively investigated. Purpose of the present study was to investigate in vitro and in vivo, strategies to counteract mycotoxin threat particularly in swine husbandry. The Ussing chambers technique was applied in the present study that for the first time to investigate in vitro the permeability of OTA and FB1 through rat intestinal mucosa. Results showed that OTA and FB1 were not absorbed from rat small intestine mucosa. Since in vivo absorption of both mycotoxins normally occurs, it is evident that in these experimental conditions Ussing diffusion chambers were not able to assess the intestinal permeability of OTA and FB1. A large number of LAB strains isolated from feces and different gastrointestinal tract regions of pigs and poultry were screened for their ability to remove OTA, FB1, and DON from bacterial medium. Results of this in vitro study showed low efficacy of isolated LAB strains to reduce OTA, FB1, and DON from bacterial medium. An in vivo trial in rats was performed to evaluate the effects of in-feed supplementation of a LAB strain, Pediococcus pentosaceus FBB61, to counteract the toxic effects induced by exposure to OTA contaminated diets. The study allows to conclude that feed supplementation with P. pentosaceus FBB61 ameliorates the oxidative status in liver, and lowers OTA induced oxidative damage in liver and kidney if diet was contaminated by OTA. This P. pentosaceus FBB61 feature joined to its bactericidal activity against Gram positive bacteria and its ability to modulate gut microflora balance in pigs, encourage additional in vivo experiments in order to better understand the potential role of P. pentosaceus FBB61 as probiotic for farm animals and humans. In the present study, in vivo trial on weaned piglets fed FB1 allow to conclude that feeding of 7.32 ppm of FB1 for 6 weeks did not impair growth performance. Deoxynivalenol contamination of feeds was evaluated in an in vivo trial on weaned piglets. The comparison between growth parameters of piglets fed DON contaminated diet and contaminated diet supplemented with the commercial product did not reach the significance level but piglet growth performances were numerically improved when the commercial product was added to DON contaminated diet. Further studies are needed to improve knowledge on mycotoxins intestinal absorption, mechanism for their detoxification in feeds and foods, and nutritional strategies to reduce mycotoxins induced damages in animals and humans. The multifactorial approach acting on each of the various steps could be a promising strategy to counteract mycotoxins damages.

Myc-mediated control of gene transcription in cancer cells

The Myc oncoproteins belong to a family of transcription factors composed by Myc, N-Myc and L-Myc. The most studied components of this family are Myc and N-Myc because their expressions are frequently deregulated in a wide range of cancers. These oncoproteins can act both as activators or repressors of gene transcription. As activators, they heterodimerize with Max (Myc associated X-factor) and the heterodimer recognizes and binds a specific sequence elements (E-Box) onto gene promoters recruiting histone acetylase and inducing transcriptional activation. Myc-mediated transcriptional repression is a quite debated issue. One of the first mechanisms defined for the Myc-mediated transcriptional repression consisted in the interaction of Myc-Max complex Sp1 and/or Miz1 transcription factors already bound to gene promoters. This interaction may interfere with their activation functions by recruiting co-repressors such as Dnmt3 or HDACs. Moreover, in the absence of , Myc may interfere with the Sp1 activation function by direct interaction and subsequent recruitment of HDACs. More recently the Myc/Max complex was also shown to mediate transcriptional repression by direct binding to peculiar E-box. In this study we analyzed the role of Myc overexpression in Osteosarcoma and Neuroblastoma oncogenesis and the mechanisms underling to Myc function. Myc overexpression is known to correlate with chemoresistance in Osteosarcoma cells. We extended this study by demonstrating that c-Myc induces transcription of a panel of ABC drug transporter genes. ABCs are a large family trans-membrane transporter deeply involved in multi drug resistance. Furthermore expression levels of Myc, ABCC1, ABCC4 and ABCF1 were proved to be important prognostic tool to predict conventional therapy failure. N-Myc amplification/overexpression is the most important prognostic factor for Neuroblastoma. Cyclin G2 and Clusterin are two genes often down regulated in neuroblastoma cells. Cyclin G2 is an atypical member of Cyclin family and its expression is associated with terminal differentiation and apoptosis. Moreover it blocks cell cycle progression and induces cell growth arrest. Instead, CLU is a multifunctional protein involved in many physiological and pathological processes. Several lines of evidences support the view that CLU may act as a tumour suppressor in Neuroblastoma. In this thesis I showed that N-Myc represses CCNG2 and CLU transcription by different mechanisms. • N-Myc represses CCNG2 transcription by directly interacting with Sp1 bound in CCNG2 promoter and recruiting HDAC2. Importantly, reactivation of CCNG2 expression through epigenetic drugs partially reduces N-Myc and HDAC2 mediated cell proliferation. • N-Myc/Max complex represses CLU expression by direct binding to a peculiar E-box element on CLU promoter and by recruitment of HDACs and Polycomb Complexes, to the CLU promoter. Overall our findings strongly support the model in which Myc overexpression/amplification may contribute to some aspects of oncogenesis by a dual action: i) transcription activation of genes that confer a multidrug resistant phenotype to cancer cells; ii), transcription repression of genes involved in cell cycle inhibition and cellular differentiation.

Genetic engineering and preclinical evaluation of oncolytic herpes simplex viruses retargeted to cancer-specific receptors

Oncolytic virotherapy exploits the ability of viruses to infect and kill cells. It is suitable as treatment for tumors that are not accessible by surgery and/or respond poorly to the current therapeutic approach. HSV is a promising oncolytic agent. It has a large genome size able to accommodate large transgenes and some attenuated oncolytic HSVs (oHSV) are already in clinical trials phase I and II. The aim of this thesis was the generation of HSV-1 retargeted to tumor-specific receptors and detargeted from HSV natural receptors, HVEM and Nectin-1. The retargeting was achieved by inserting a specific single chain antibody (scFv) for the tumor receptor selected inside the HSV glycoprotein gD. In this research three tumor receptors were considered: epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) overexpressed in 25-30% of breast and ovarian cancers and gliomas, prostate specific membrane antigen (PSMA) expressed in prostate carcinomas and in neovascolature of solid tumors; and epidermal growth factor receptor variant III (EGFRvIII). In vivo studies on HER2 retargeted viruses R-LM113 and R-LM249 have demonstrated their high safety profile. For R-LM249 the antitumor efficacy has been highlighted by target-specific inhibition of the growth of human tumors in models of HER2-positive breast and ovarian cancer in nude mice. In a murine model of HER2-positive glioma in nude mice, R-LM113 was able to significantly increase the survival time of treated mice compared to control. Up to now, PSMA and EGFRvIII viruses (R-LM593 and R-LM613) are only characterized in vitro, confirming the specific retargeting to selected targets. This strategy has proved to be generally applicable to a broad spectrum of receptors for which a single chain antibody is available.