Il diritto di asilo tra ordinamento costituzionale e sistema europeo di protezione multilivello

La tesi della candidata presenta - attraverso lo studio della normativa e della giurisprudenza rilevanti in Italia, Francia e Germania – un’analisi dell'ambito soggettivo di applicazione del diritto costituzionale d'asilo e del suo rapporto con il riconoscimento dello status di rifugiato ai sensi della Convenzione di Ginevra del 1951, nonchè della sua interazione con le altre forme di protezione della persona previste dal diritto comunitario e dal sistema CEDU di salvaguardia dei diritti fondamentali. Dal breve itinerario comparatistico percorso, emerge una forte tendenza alla neutralizzazione dell’asilo costituzionale ed alla sua sovrapposizione con la fattispecie del rifugio convenzionale quale carattere comune agli ordinamenti presi in esame, espressione di una consapevole scelta di politica del diritto altresì volta ad assimilare la materia alla disciplina generale dell’immigrazione al fine di ridimensionarne le potenzialità espansive (si pensi alla latitudine delle formule costituzionali di cui agli artt. 10, co. 3 Cost. it. e 16a, co. 1 Grundgesetz) e di ricondurre l'asilo entro i tradizionali confini della discrezionalità amministrativa quale sovrana concessione dello Stato ospitante. L'esame delle fonti comunitarie di recente introduzione illumina l’indagine: in particolare, la stessa Direttiva 2004/83CE sulla qualifica di rifugiato e sulla protezione sussidiaria consolida quanto stabilito dalle disposizioni convenzionali, ma ne estende la portata in modo significativo, recependo gli esiti della lunga evoluzione giurisprudenziale compiuta dalle corti nazionali e dal Giudice di Strasburgo nell’interpretazione del concetto di “persecuzione” (specialmente, in relazione all’individuazione delle azioni e degli agenti persecutori). Con riferimento al sistema giuridico italiano, la tesi si interroga sulle prospettive di attuazione del dettato dell’art. 10, terzo comma della Costituzione, ed inoltre propone la disamina di alcuni istituti chiave dell’attuale normativa in materia di asilo, attraverso cui si riscontrano importanti profili di incompatibilità con la natura di diritto fondamentale costituzionalmente tutelato, conferita al diritto di asilo dalla volontà dei Costituenti e radicata nella ratio della norma stessa (il trattenimento del richiedente asilo; la procedura di esame della domanda, l’onere probatorio e le cause ostative al suo accoglimento; l’effettività della tutela giurisdizionale). Le questioni più problematiche ancora irrisolte investono proprio tali aspetti del procedimento - previsto per ottenere quello che alcuni atti europei, tra cui l'art. 18 della Carta di Nizza, definiscono right to asylum - come rivela la disciplina contenuta nella Direttiva 2005/85CE, recante norme minime per le procedure applicate negli Stati membri ai fini del riconoscimento e della revoca dello status di rifugiato. Infine, il fenomeno della esternalizzazione dei controlli compromette lo stesso accesso alle procedure, nella misura in cui rende "mobile" il confine territoriale dell’area Schengen (attraverso l'introduzione del criterio dello "Stato terzo sicuro", degli strumenti dell'esame preliminare delle domande e della detenzione amministrativa nei Paesi di transito, nonché per mezzo del presidio delle frontiere esterne), relegando il trattamento dei richiedenti asilo ad uno spazio in cui non sempre è monitorabile l'effettivo rispetto del principio del non refoulement, degli obblighi internazionali relativi all’accoglienza dei profughi e delle clausole di determinazione dello Stato competente all'esame delle domande ai sensi del Regolamento n. 343/03, c.d. Dublino II (emblematico il caso del pattugliamento delle acque internazionali e dell'intercettazione delle navi prima del superamento dei confini territoriali). Questi delicati aspetti di criticità della disciplina procedimentale limitano il carattere innovativo delle recenti acquisizioni comunitarie sull’ambito di operatività delle nuove categorie definitorie introdotte (le qualifiche di rifugiato e di titolare di protezione sussidiaria e la complessa nozione di persecuzione, innanzitutto), richiedendo, pertanto, l’adozione di un approccio sistemico – piuttosto che analitico – per poter rappresentare in modo consapevole le dinamiche che concretamente si producono a livello applicativo ed affrontare la questione nodale dell'efficienza dell'attuale sistema multilivello di protezione del richiedente asilo.

Different approaches to identify markers for meat quality and production traits in pigs: analysis of the transcriptome in post mortem skeletal muscle and investigation of candidate genes

Due to the growing attention of consumers towards their food, improvement of quality of animal products has become one of the main focus of research. To this aim, the application of modern molecular genetics approaches has been proved extremely useful and effective. This innovative drive includes all livestock species productions, including pork. The Italian pig breeding industry is unique because needs heavy pigs slaughtered at about 160 kg for the production of high quality processed products. For this reason, it requires precise meat quality and carcass characteristics. Two aspects have been considered in this thesis: the application of the transcriptome analysis in post mortem pig muscles as a possible method to evaluate meat quality parameters related to the pre mortem status of the animals, including health, nutrition, welfare, and with potential applications for product traceability (chapters 3 and 4); the study of candidate genes for obesity related traits in order to identify markers associated with fatness in pigs that could be applied to improve carcass quality (chapters 5, 6, and 7). Chapter three addresses the first issue from a methodological point of view. When we considered this issue, it was not obvious that post mortem skeletal muscle could be useful for transcriptomic analysis. Therefore we demonstrated that the quality of RNA extracted from skeletal muscle of pigs sampled at different post mortem intervals (20 minutes, 2 hours, 6 hours, and 24 hours) is good for downstream applications. Degradation occurred starting from 48 h post mortem even if at this time it is still possible to use some RNA products. In the fourth chapter, in order to demonstrate the potential use of RNA obtained up to 24 hours post mortem, we present the results of RNA analysis with the Affymetrix microarray platform that made it possible to assess the level of expression of more of 24000 mRNAs. We did not identify any significant differences between the different post mortem times suggesting that this technique could be applied to retrieve information coming from the transcriptome of skeletal muscle samples not collected just after slaughtering. This study represents the first contribution of this kind applied to pork. In the fifth chapter, we investigated as candidate for fat deposition the TBC1D1 [TBC1 (tre-2/USP6, BUB2, cdc16) gene. This gene is involved in mechanisms regulating energy homeostasis in skeletal muscle and is associated with predisposition to obesity in humans. By resequencing a fragment of the TBC1D1 gene we identified three synonymous mutations localized in exon 2 (g.40A>G, g.151C>T, and g.172T>C) and 2 polymorphisms localized in intron 2 (g.219G>A and g.252G>A). One of these polymorphisms (g.219G>A) was genotyped by high resolution melting (HRM) analysis and PCR-RFLP. Moreover, this gene sequence was mapped by radiation hybrid analysis on porcine chromosome 8. The association study was conducted in 756 performance tested pigs of Italian Large White and Italian Duroc breeds. Significant results were obtained for lean meat content, back fat thickness, visible intermuscular fat and ham weight. In chapter six, a second candidate gene (tribbles homolog 3, TRIB3) is analyzed in a study of association with carcass and meat quality traits. The TRIB3 gene is involved in energy metabolism of skeletal muscle and plays a role as suppressor of adipocyte differentiation. We identified two polymorphisms in the first coding exon of the porcine TRIB3 gene, one is a synonymous SNP (c.132T> C), a second is a missense mutation (c.146C> T, p.P49L). The two polymorphisms appear to be in complete linkage disequilibrium between and within breeds. The in silico analysis of the p.P49L substitution suggests that it might have a functional effect. The association study in about 650 pigs indicates that this marker is associated with back fat thickness in Italian Large White and Italian Duroc breeds in two different experimental designs. This polymorphisms is also associated with lactate content of muscle semimembranosus in Italian Large White pigs. Expression analysis indicated that this gene is transcribed in skeletal muscle and adipose tissue as well as in other tissues. In the seventh chapter, we reported the genotyping results for of 677 SNPs in extreme divergent groups of pigs chosen according to the extreme estimated breeding values for back fat thickness. SNPs were identified by resequencing, literature mining and in silico database mining. analysis, data reported in the literature of 60 candidates genes for obesity. Genotyping was carried out using the GoldenGate (Illumina) platform. Of the analyzed SNPs more that 300 were polymorphic in the genotyped population and had minor allele frequency (MAF) >0.05. Of these SNPs, 65 were associated (P<0.10) with back fat thickness. One of the most significant gene marker was the same TBC1D1 SNPs reported in chapter 5, confirming the role of this gene in fat deposition in pig. These results could be important to better define the pig as a model for human obesity other than for marker assisted selection to improve carcass characteristics.

Bioinformatic methods in applied genomic research

Here I will focus on three main topics that best address and include the projects I have been working in during my three year PhD period that I have spent in different research laboratories addressing both computationally and practically important problems all related to modern molecular genomics. The first topic is the use of livestock species (pigs) as a model of obesity, a complex human dysfunction. My efforts here concern the detection and annotation of Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms. I developed a pipeline for mining human and porcine sequences. Starting from a set of human genes related with obesity the platform returns a list of annotated porcine SNPs extracted from a new set of potential obesity-genes. 565 of these SNPs were analyzed on an Illumina chip to test the involvement in obesity on a population composed by more than 500 pigs. Results will be discussed. All the computational analysis and experiments were done in collaboration with the Biocomputing group and Dr.Luca Fontanesi, respectively, under the direction of prof. Rita Casadio at the Bologna University, Italy. The second topic concerns developing a methodology, based on Factor Analysis, to simultaneously mine information from different levels of biological organization. With specific test cases we develop models of the complexity of the mRNA-miRNA molecular interaction in brain tumors measured indirectly by microarray and quantitative PCR. This work was done under the supervision of Prof. Christine Nardini, at the “CAS-MPG Partner Institute for Computational Biology” of Shangai, China (co-founded by the Max Planck Society and the Chinese Academy of Sciences jointly) The third topic concerns the development of a new method to overcome the variety of PCR technologies routinely adopted to characterize unknown flanking DNA regions of a viral integration locus of the human genome after clinical gene therapy. This new method is entirely based on next generation sequencing and it reduces the time required to detect insertion sites, decreasing the complexity of the procedure. This work was done in collaboration with the group of Dr. Manfred Schmidt at the Nationales Centrum für Tumorerkrankungen (Heidelberg, Germany) supervised by Dr. Annette Deichmann and Dr. Ali Nowrouzi. Furthermore I add as an Appendix the description of a R package for gene network reconstruction that I helped to develop for scientific usage (http://www.bioconductor.org/help/bioc-views/release/bioc/html/BUS.html).