Hybrid Artificial Intelligence to Extract Patterns and Rules from Argumentative and Legal Texts

This Thesis is composed of a collection of works written in the period 2019-2022, whose aim is to find methodologies of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning to detect and classify patterns and rules in argumentative and legal texts. We define our approach “hybrid”, since we aimed at designing hybrid combinations of symbolic and sub-symbolic AI, involving both “top-down” structured knowledge and “bottom-up” data-driven knowledge. A first group of works is dedicated to the classification of argumentative patterns. Following the Waltonian model of argument and the related theory of Argumentation Schemes, these works focused on the detection of argumentative support and opposition, showing that argumentative evidences can be classified at fine-grained levels without resorting to highly engineered features. To show this, our methods involved not only traditional approaches such as TFIDF, but also some novel methods based on Tree Kernel algorithms. After the encouraging results of this first phase, we explored the use of a some emerging methodologies promoted by actors like Google, which have deeply changed NLP since 2018-19 — i.e., Transfer Learning and language models. These new methodologies markedly improved our previous results, providing us with best-performing NLP tools. Using Transfer Learning, we also performed a Sequence Labelling task to recognize the exact span of argumentative components (i.e., claims and premises), thus connecting portions of natural language to portions of arguments (i.e., to the logical-inferential dimension). The last part of our work was finally dedicated to the employment of Transfer Learning methods for the detection of rules and deontic modalities. In this case, we explored a hybrid approach which combines structured knowledge coming from two LegalXML formats (i.e., Akoma Ntoso and LegalRuleML) with sub-symbolic knowledge coming from pre-trained (and then fine-tuned) neural architectures.

A Unitary Approach to Information and Estimation Theory in Digital Communication Systems

This thesis presents the outcomes of a Ph.D. course in telecommunications engineering. It is focused on the optimization of the physical layer of digital communication systems and it provides innovations for both multi- and single-carrier systems. For the former type we have first addressed the problem of the capacity in presence of several nuisances. Moreover, we have extended the concept of Single Frequency Network to the satellite scenario, and then we have introduced a novel concept in subcarrier data mapping, resulting in a very low PAPR of the OFDM signal. For single carrier systems we have proposed a method to optimize constellation design in presence of a strong distortion, such as the non linear distortion provided by satellites' on board high power amplifier, then we developed a method to calculate the bit/symbol error rate related to a given constellation, achieving an improved accuracy with respect to the traditional Union Bound with no additional complexity. Finally we have designed a low complexity SNR estimator, which saves one-half of multiplication with respect to the ML estimator, and it has similar estimation accuracy.

Coordination and Control of Autonomous Mobile Robots Swarms by using Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm and Consensus Theory

This thesis presents some different techniques designed to drive a swarm of robots in an a-priori unknown environment in order to move the group from a starting area to a final one avoiding obstacles. The presented techniques are based on two different theories used alone or in combination: Swarm Intelligence (SI) and Graph Theory. Both theories are based on the study of interactions between different entities (also called agents or units) in Multi- Agent Systems (MAS). The first one belongs to the Artificial Intelligence context and the second one to the Distributed Systems context. These theories, each one from its own point of view, exploit the emergent behaviour that comes from the interactive work of the entities, in order to achieve a common goal. The features of flexibility and adaptability of the swarm have been exploited with the aim to overcome and to minimize difficulties and problems that can affect one or more units of the group, having minimal impact to the whole group and to the common main target. Another aim of this work is to show the importance of the information shared between the units of the group, such as the communication topology, because it helps to maintain the environmental information, detected by each single agent, updated among the swarm. Swarm Intelligence has been applied to the presented technique, through the Particle Swarm Optimization algorithm (PSO), taking advantage of its features as a navigation system. The Graph Theory has been applied by exploiting Consensus and the application of the agreement protocol with the aim to maintain the units in a desired and controlled formation. This approach has been followed in order to conserve the power of PSO and to control part of its random behaviour with a distributed control algorithm like Consensus.

AI and legal personhood: a theoretical survey

I set out the pros and cons of conferring legal personhood on artificial intelligence systems (AIs), mainly under civil law. I provide functionalist arguments to justify this policy choice and identify the content that such a legal status might have. Although personhood entails holding one or more legal positions, I will focus on the distribution of liabilities arising from unpredictably illegal and harmful conduct. Conferring personhood on AIs might efficiently allocate risks and social costs, ensuring protection for victims, incentives for production, and technological innovation. I also consider other legal positions, e.g., the capacity to act, the ability to hold property, make contracts, and sue (and be sued). However, I contend that even assuming that conferring personhood on AIs finds widespread consensus, its implementation requires solving a coordination problem, determined by three asymmetries: technological, intra-legal systems, and inter-legal systems. I address the coordination problem through conceptual analysis and metaphysical explanation. I first frame legal personhood as a node of inferential links between factual preconditions and legal effects. Yet, this inferentialist reading does not account for the ‘background reasons’, i.e., it does not explain why we group divergent situations under legal personality and how extra-legal information is integrated into it. One way to account for this background is to adopt a neo-institutional perspective and update its ontology of legal concepts with further layers: the meta-institutional and the intermediate. Under this reading, the semantic referent of legal concepts is institutional reality. So, I use notions of analytical metaphysics, such as grounding and anchoring, to explain the origins and constituent elements of legal personality as an institutional kind. Finally, I show that the integration of conceptual and metaphysical analysis can provide the toolkit for finding an equilibrium around the legal-policy choices that are involved in including (or not including) AIs among legal persons.

An interdisciplinary analysis of obesity: theory and empirical evidence

The dissertation is structured in three parts. The first part compares US and EU agricultural policies since the end of WWII. There is not enough evidence for claiming that agricultural support has a negative impact on obesity trends. I discuss the possibility of an exchange in best practices to fight obesity. There are relevant economic, societal and legal differences between the US and the EU. However, partnerships against obesity are welcomed. The second part presents a socio-ecological model of the determinants of obesity. I employ an interdisciplinary model because it captures the simultaneous influence of several variables. Obesity is an interaction of pre-birth, primary and secondary socialization factors. To test the significance of each factor, I use data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent Health. I compare the average body mass index across different populations. Differences in means are statistically significant. In the last part I use the National Survey of Children Health. I analyze the effect that family characteristics, built environment, cultural norms and individual factors have on the body mass index (BMI). I use Ordered Probit models and I calculate the marginal effects. I use State and ethnicity fixed effects to control for unobserved heterogeneity. I find that southern US States tend have on average a higher probability of being obese. On the ethnicity side, White Americans have a lower BMI respect to Black Americans, Hispanics and American Indians Native Islanders; being Asian is associated with a lower probability of being obese. In neighborhoods where trust level and safety perception are higher, children are less overweight and obese. Similar results are shown for higher level of parental income and education. Breastfeeding has a negative impact. Higher values of measures of behavioral disorders have a positive and significant impact on obesity, as predicted by the theory.

Reexamining the Role of Incarceration and Stigma in Criminal Law

One of the ways by which the legal system has responded to different sets of problems is the blurring of the traditional boundaries of criminal law, both procedural and substantive. This study aims to explore under what conditions does this trend lead to the improvement of society's welfare by focusing on two distinguishing sanctions in criminal law, incarceration and social stigma. In analyzing how incarceration affects the incentive to an individual to violate a legal standard, we considered the crucial role of the time constraint. This aspect has not been fully explored in the literature on law and economics, especially with respect to the analysis of the beneficiality of imposing either a fine or a prison term. We observed that that when individuals are heterogeneous with respect to wealth and wage income, and when the level of activity can be considered a normal good, only the middle wage and middle income groups can be adequately deterred by a fixed fines alone regime. The existing literature only considers the case of the very poor, deemed as judgment proof. However, since imprisonment is a socially costly way to deprive individuals of their time, other alternatives may be sought such as the imposition of discriminatory monetary fine, partial incapacitation and other alternative sanctions. According to traditional legal theory, the reason why criminal law is obeyed is not mainly due to the monetary sanctions but to the stigma arising from the community’s moral condemnation that accompanies conviction or merely suspicion. However, it is not sufficiently clear whether social stigma always accompanies a criminal conviction. We addressed this issue by identifying the circumstances wherein a criminal conviction carries an additional social stigma. Our results show that social stigma is seen to accompany a conviction under the following conditions: first, when the law coincides with the society's social norms; and second, when the prohibited act provides information on an unobservable attribute or trait of an individual -- crucial in establishing or maintaining social relationships beyond mere economic relationships. Thus, even if the social planner does not impose the social sanction directly, the impact of social stigma can still be influenced by the probability of conviction and the level of the monetary fine imposed as well as the varying degree of correlation between the legal standard violated and the social traits or attributes of the individual. In this respect, criminal law serves as an institution that facilitates cognitive efficiency in the process of imposing the social sanction to the extent that the rest of society is boundedly rational and use judgment heuristics. Paradoxically, using criminal law in order to invoke stigma for the violation of a legal standard may also serve to undermine its strength. To sum, the results of our analysis reveal that the scope of criminal law is narrow both for the purposes of deterrence and cognitive efficiency. While there are certain conditions where the enforcement of criminal law may lead to an increase in social welfare, particularly with respect to incarceration and stigma, we have also identified the channels through which they could affect behavior. Since such mechanisms can be replicated in less costly ways, society should first try or seek to employ these legal institutions before turning to criminal law as a last resort.

Birth, Development and Progressive Institutionalization of the Ombudsman in the Russian Legal and Political System

One of the current trends in governance and legal development in Russia is aimed at establishing a modern, efficient and internationally harmonised system of safeguards of human rights and civil liberties. A fairly recent addition to this system has been the institution of ombudsman as a public authority specialised in promoting and protecting human rights and civil liberties. The introduction of this institution as well as its formalisation at the constitutional and legislative levels has been increasingly relevant and important, as it raises the dealings between the state and the individual to a new level. As an independent public institution resolving conflicts between citizens and government authorities, the ombudsman makes steps, within the scope of his jurisdiction, to restitute individual rights, and helps to enhance the reputation of government. The present work describes and assesses the birth, development and institutionalization process of the Ombudsman Office in the Russian Federation, at federal and regional levels, with a particular emphasis on the role of international references and cooperation for institution building. Ombudsmen have done a magnificent job in demonstrating value with the resolution of individual and systemic complaints; subsequent improvements to government; and economic savings by mitigating litigation costs.

Interpreting Judgements using Knowledge Representation Methods and Computational Models of Argument

The goal of the present research is to define a Semantic Web framework for precedent modelling, by using knowledge extracted from text, metadata, and rules, while maintaining a strong text-to-knowledge morphism between legal text and legal concepts, in order to fill the gap between legal document and its semantics. The framework is composed of four different models that make use of standard languages from the Semantic Web stack of technologies: a document metadata structure, modelling the main parts of a judgement, and creating a bridge between a text and its semantic annotations of legal concepts; a legal core ontology, modelling abstract legal concepts and institutions contained in a rule of law; a legal domain ontology, modelling the main legal concepts in a specific domain concerned by case-law; an argumentation system, modelling the structure of argumentation. The input to the framework includes metadata associated with judicial concepts, and an ontology library representing the structure of case-law. The research relies on the previous efforts of the community in the field of legal knowledge representation and rule interchange for applications in the legal domain, in order to apply the theory to a set of real legal documents, stressing the OWL axioms definitions as much as possible in order to enable them to provide a semantically powerful representation of the legal document and a solid ground for an argumentation system using a defeasible subset of predicate logics. It appears that some new features of OWL2 unlock useful reasoning features for legal knowledge, especially if combined with defeasible rules and argumentation schemes. The main task is thus to formalize legal concepts and argumentation patterns contained in a judgement, with the following requirement: to check, validate and reuse the discourse of a judge - and the argumentation he produces - as expressed by the judicial text.

How to explain: from theory to practice

Today we live in an age where the internet and artificial intelligence allow us to search for information through impressive amounts of data, opening up revolutionary new ways to make sense of reality and understand our world. However, it is still an area of improvement to exploit the full potential of large amounts of explainable information by distilling it automatically in an intuitive and user-centred explanation. For instance, different people (or artificial agents) may search for and request different types of information in a different order, so it is unlikely that a short explanation can suffice for all needs in the most generic case. Moreover, dumping a large portion of explainable information in a one-size-fits-all representation may also be sub-optimal, as the needed information may be scarce and dispersed across hundreds of pages. The aim of this work is to investigate how to automatically generate (user-centred) explanations from heterogeneous and large collections of data, with a focus on the concept of explanation in a broad sense, as a critical artefact for intelligence, regardless of whether it is human or robotic. Our approach builds on and extends Achinstein’s philosophical theory of explanations, where explaining is an illocutionary (i.e., broad but relevant) act of usefully answering questions. Specifically, we provide the theoretical foundations of Explanatory Artificial Intelligence (YAI), formally defining a user-centred explanatory tool and the space of all possible explanations, or explanatory space, generated by it. We present empirical results in support of our theory, showcasing the implementation of YAI tools and strategies for assessing explainability. To justify and evaluate the proposed theories and models, we considered case studies at the intersection of artificial intelligence and law, particularly European legislation. Our tools helped produce better explanations of software documentation and legal texts for humans and complex regulations for reinforcement learning agents.

Gender equality and human development in Macedonia during transition (1991-2006)

The present thesis treats the issue of gender equality in Macedonia during the period of transition from the socialist system to the one of parliamentary democracy. The main aim is to mainstream the gender perspective in the analysis of the transitional policies through the examination of the basic citizenship rights to which citizens are entitled and by the means of the evaluation of their capabilities to exercise these rights. Gender equality, as one of the main strongholds of the concept of human development is measured through the application of nine gender relevant capabilities in a Case study conducted within selected municipalities in the country. Through the analysis of the Macedonian constitutional and legal framework and the assessment of gender based inequalities, the research questions the need for the enactment of a process of engendering of citizenship, which would integrate gender based differences, contemplate the private sphere of citizens lives and pledge participation in the political life of the country. The thesis, finally, analyses the gender equality strategy of the Macedonian government with the purpose to evaluate whether it is context based, i.e. it tackles the main fields where inequalities emerge and in this context whether it envisages a process of engendering of citizenship.

Argumentation and artifacts for intelligent multi-agent systems

Reasoning under uncertainty is a human capacity that in software system is necessary and often hidden. Argumentation theory and logic make explicit non-monotonic information in order to enable automatic forms of reasoning under uncertainty. In human organization Distributed Cognition and Activity Theory explain how artifacts are fundamental in all cognitive process. Then, in this thesis we search to understand the use of cognitive artifacts in an new argumentation framework for an agent-based artificial society.

I rapporti tra contratti collettivi di diverso livello nel settore privato

L’elaborato esamina il tema del concorso e del conflitto tra contratti collettivi di diverso livello nel settore privato. Partendo da un’impostazione complessiva del fenomeno della contrattazione collettiva, oltre che da una riflessione sulla natura e sul ruolo della contrattazione integrativa, il lavoro si propone di individuare un criterio di risoluzione del conflitto. In una prima parte della ricerca sono stati individuati e studiati i modelli di rapporti tra livelli definiti negli accordi interconfederali e nei contratti di categoria. Nello studio della regolamentazione interna al sistema sindacale si è considerato la natura delle relative clausole. Queste ultime hanno valenza obbligatoria e, per tale motivo, non sono idonee a risolvere l’eventuale conflitto tra livelli contrattuali. Si è reso quindi necessario considerare i criteri esterni di risoluzione del conflitto elaborati dalla dottrina e della giurisprudenza. Tra i vari criteri elaborati, ci si è soffermati sul criterio di specialità, sulla sua natura e sulla sua funzione. Più nello specifico, si è ritenuto il principio di specialità un principio generale dell’ordinamento giuridico, applicabile anche al conflitto tra contratti di diverso livello. Alla luce del principio di specialità, si è ricostruito il rapporto tra livelli, anche in ipotesi di contrattazione separata e di negoziazione operante su rinvio legislativo. Infine, nell’ultimo capitolo si è esaminato l’art. 8 della L. 148/2011. Ci si è interrogati sulla compatibilità di tale norma con l’impostazione complessiva del tema del rapporto tra contratti di diverso livello e sui suoi riflessi sulla questione del conflitto.

Evaluation of Human Exposure to Magnetic Fields Generated by Electric Power Systems in Complex Configurations

The international growing concern for the human exposure to magnetic fields generated by electric power lines has unavoidably led to imposing legal limits. Respecting these limits, implies being able to calculate easily and accurately the generated magnetic field also in complex configurations. Twisting of phase conductors is such a case. The consolidated exact and approximated theory regarding a single-circuit twisted three-phase power cable line has been reported along with the proposal of an innovative simplified formula obtained by means of an heuristic procedure. This formula, although being dramatically simpler, is proven to be a good approximation of the analytical formula and at the same time much more accurate than the approximated formula found in literature. The double-circuit twisted three-phase power cable line case has been studied following different approaches of increasing complexity and accuracy. In this framework, the effectiveness of the above-mentioned innovative formula is also examined. The experimental verification of the correctness of the twisted double-circuit theoretical analysis has permitted its extension to multiple-circuit twisted three-phase power cable lines. In addition, appropriate 2D and, in particularly, 3D numerical codes for simulating real existing overhead power lines for the calculation of the magnetic field in their vicinity have been created. Finally, an innovative ‘smart’ measurement and evaluation system of the magnetic field is being proposed, described and validated, which deals with the experimentally-based evaluation of the total magnetic field B generated by multiple sources in complex three-dimensional arrangements, carried out on the basis of the measurement of the three Cartesian field components and their correlation with the field currents via multilinear regression techniques. The ultimate goal is verifying that magnetic induction intensity is within the prescribed limits.

Il diritto alla detrazione e le frodi Iva

Il presente lavoro parte dalla constatazione che l’Imposta sul valore aggiunto è stata introdotta con lo scopo specifico di tassare il consumo in modo uniforme a livello europeo. La globalizzazione dell’economia con l’abolizione delle frontiere ha tuttavia favorito la nascita non solo di un mercato unico europeo, ma anche di “un mercato unico delle frodi”. L’esistenza di abusi e frodi in ambito Iva risulta doppiamente dannosa per l’Unione europea: tali condotte incidono quantitativamente sull'ammontare delle risorse proprie dell’Unione e sulle entrate fiscali dei singoli Stati membri nonché violano il principio di concorrenza e producono distorsioni nel mercato unico. È in questo contesto che intervengono i giudici nazionali e la Corte di Giustizia, al fine di porre un freno a tali fenomeni patologici. Quest’ultima, chiamata a far rispettare il diritto comunitario, ha sviluppato una misura antifrode e antiabuso consistente nel diniego del diritto alla detrazione qualora lo stesso venga invocato dal soggetto passivo abusivamente o fraudolentemente. Vedremo però che il problema non può essere facilmente ridotto a formule operative: al di là dello schema, fin troppo scontato, dell’operatore apertamente disonesto e degli operatori con esso dichiaratamente correi, rimane il territorio grigio dei soggetti coinvolti, qualche volta inconsapevolmente qualche volta consapevolmente, ma senza concreta partecipazione nella frode da altri orchestrata. Permane a questo punto la domanda se sia coerente - in un sistema impositivo che privilegia i profili oggettivi, prescindendo, salvo gli aspetti sanzionatori, da quelli soggettivi- negare il diritto alla detrazione Iva per asserita consapevolezza di comportamenti fraudolenti altrui o se non vi siano regole più adatte al fine di porre un freno alle frodi e dunque più conformi al principio di proporzionalità.

The twofold role of Cloud Computing in Digital Forensics: target of investigations and helping hand to evidence analysis

This PhD thesis discusses the impact of Cloud Computing infrastructures on Digital Forensics in the twofold role of target of investigations and as a helping hand to investigators. The Cloud offers a cheap and almost limitless computing power and storage space for data which can be leveraged to commit either new or old crimes and host related traces. Conversely, the Cloud can help forensic examiners to find clues better and earlier than traditional analysis applications, thanks to its dramatically improved evidence processing capabilities. In both cases, a new arsenal of software tools needs to be made available. The development of this novel weaponry and its technical and legal implications from the point of view of repeatability of technical assessments is discussed throughout the following pages and constitutes the unprecedented contribution of this work