Effects of a small fish cage farm on zooplankton assemblages (Cladocera and Copepoda: Crustacea) in a sub-tropicalreservoir (SE Brazil).

In Brazil, the environmental impacts of fish cage farming in water reservoirs have not been well studied. As this activity is being increasingly practiced, investigations on the impacts of this practice are strongly needed. The goal of this study was to investigate the effects of a small cage tilapia farm on zooplankton assemblages in an oligo/mesotrophic reservoir (Jurumirim Reservoir, Paranapanema River). Zooplankton, limnological variables, and water samples were obtained trimonthly during a year at two sample sites, one was located adjacent to the cage farm and the control area was located one kilometer away from it. Eighteen species were identified and Cladocera was the dominant group. The same species of microcrustaceans were identified at both sites. Among the ecological attributes studied, only evenness showed a tendency towards being higher in the control site. Significant differences between studied variables in the sites were observed only for material in suspension. The results of the study indicate that, during the studied period, the cage farm did not generate detectable changes in the zooplankton assemblages and their ecological attributes. However, small differences in some limnological variables could be an indication of some environmental changes associated with the fish farm system.

Pelecitus helicinus Railliet & Henry, 1910 (Filarioidea, Dirofilariinae) and other nematode parasites of Brazilian birds

We report Pelecitus helicinus Railliet & Henry, 1910 from 13 species of birds of 2 orders and 7 families, collected from the states of São Paulo and Mato Grosso, Brazil. All 13 constitute new host records for this nematode. In addition, we report the first record of Aprocta golvani Diaz-Ungria, 1963 from Brazil and Monasa nigrifrons (Bucconidae), as well as a number of other nematode records from Neotropical birds.

Birds at Eucalyptus and other flowers in Southern Brazil: A review

In southern Brazil, I recorded 14 species of hummingbirds, one woodpecker, three Psittacidae, four Tyrannidae, one mockingbird, and 31 tanagers and relatives at eucalyptus flowers. Others have registered 3 different hummingbirds, another parrotlet, four more tyrannids, a peppershrike, a thrush, and 5 tanagers and related birds, for a total of 69 species. However, commercial plantations rarely flower, so use is local or undependable. Understory Phaethorninae are not recorded at eucalyptus, rarely at other tall and hence multiflowered trees. Bromelias and other flowers are noted in various studies, which add 89 species of flower feeders, including 14 Psittacidae, 17 Trochilidae, and 37 tanagers and relatives. Isolated low flowers and epiphytes are mostly visited by hummingbirds (some by Coereba), but some tall trees (Chorisia) also. As two times as many tanager species visit flowers as hummingbirds, researchers will have to get up early and patiently study treetop and nonpatchy habitats. However, tree plantations can attract artificially, like feeders. Bunch-flowering extrafloral nectar (Mabea, Combretum) is preferred by wandering mixed-flock treetop or edge tanagers and relatives, which often crawl over bunched flowers like parrots or woodpeckers (or marsupials and other mammals) rather than hover at separate flowers like nonflocking Trochilidae or peck from nearby like Nectariniidae and Coereba. Clamberers and petal-pullers, even nectar robbers, can cause evolution of umbels and other bunched flowers, for the bird, mammal or insect receives pollen from nearby flowers. Psittacidae, saltators and others mostly eat flowers, but can pollinate if they touch nearby flowers. Multiflowered trees can also attract hawks, causing waves of tanagers, parrots and others that move on to pollinate trees via fear and nectarivory. Certain groups, notably thrushes and tyrannids, seem to use nectar little, the latter often catching insects.

Birds of Santa Teresa, Espírito Santo, Brazil: Do humans add or subtract species?

In uplands and lowlands of Santa Teresa, central Espírito Santo State, Brazil, 405 bird species were confirmed by field, museum, and literature studies. Of these, 16 seem to have disappeared, while 67 other species seem to have been lost from the lowlands (where no large biological reserves exist). Due to a suggestion that human areas add species to beta-diversity, we verified that up to 79 species now present have perhaps invaded with human activity (and 10 others are likely to invade), a total similar to that for lost species. However, lost species are often rare and invading species often widespread, resulting in exchange of Picassos for Coca-Cola bottles. Furthermore, gains exceed losses only when large biological reserves are present, as in the uplands (Nova Lombardia, Santa Lucia Reserves, each with over 250 species). Small or irregular reserves usually lose well over half their species, and these are only partly replaced by the invaders, resulting in net losses of up to half the local avifaunas. If one lists only 31 probable invaders, rather than a possible 79, things are even worse; net losses occur even in the entire township and near reserves, reaching over 200 species around lowland private reserves. Future productive development of human areas can eliminate or maltreat many invading species, too. While approving taxes on improductive use of land, as it leaves other areas free, we suggest that many current local uses, such as for coffee, are luxury production and could, be taxed.

Birds of a eucalyptus woodlot in interior São Paulo.

Some 255 birds were recorded between 1982-2001 in and near a 2314-ha Horto of old eucalyptus plantations with native understory and a lake, near Rio Claro, in central São Paulo, Brazil. This is close to the 263 recorded in and around a ten-times smaller nearby 230-ha woodlot of semideciduous forest. Different species were 44, for a total of 307 in both areas. One hundred and fifty nonvagrant forest and border species were recorded in 1982-86, a number close to the 152 in the small native woodlot. With dry years and logging of plots in 1985-93, 21 of the 150 species were lost, 42 species decreased in numbers, 49 were stable, 19 increased (15 being border species), and 5 entered (one of dry forest and 4 of borders), so 129 species remained in 1996-2001 compared to 133 in the native woodlot. Open-area birds were 33, versus 50 in better-checked grassy swales in sugar cane near the natural woodlot, for a total of 53. Several species, like some border ones, did not enter the open but isolated and mowed interior lake area, or took years to do so. Water and marsh birds were 46 versus 40 in smaller creeks and ponds near the natural woodlot (total, 55) but many were migrants or infrequent visitors using distant areas, and perhaps should be counted as 0.1-0.9 local species rather than 1 species. Use of this more accurate method would reduce waterbird totals by 14 species in the Horto and by 11 around the native woodlot. I also recommend longer censusing at the edges in large woodlots or many edge species will be recorded only in small fragments of habitat. Several species increased and others decreased with occasional cat-tail and water-lily cleanups at the lake. A forested corridor between the Horto and natural woodlot is recommended, with old eucalyptus left to provide flowers for hummingbirds.

Differential fruit consumption of two Melastomataceae by birds in Serra da Mantiqueira, southeastern Brazil

In this study we report on the consumption of two syntopic Melastomataceae species by birds in a lower montane forest in Monte Verde, southeastern Brazil. The species of frugivores were identified and characterized by their methods of capture and consumption of fruits. We also provide information on abundance, phenology of plants and fruit characteristics of the two Melastomataceae species. The 13 observed species of birds formed two statistically distinct frugivorous groups with taxonomic and behavioral differences. Five of seven bird species that fed on L. aff. sublanata fruits belong to the subfamily Thraupinae and most fruits were mashed before swallowed. Four of the eight bird species that visited M. cinerascens belong to the subfamily Turdinae and all fruits were swallowed whole. Only two bird species were common visitors of both Melastomataceae species. Our findings show that fruits of the two Melastomataceae species with similar morphological characteristics were exploited differently by frugivorours birds.

Cryptococcosis outbreak in psittacine birds in Brazil

An outbreak of cryptococcosis occurred in a breeding aviary in São Paulo, Brazil. Seven psittacine birds (of species Charmosyna papou, Lorius lory, Trichoglossus goldiei, Psittacula krameri and Psittacus erithacus) died of disseminated cryptococcosis. Incoordination, progressive paralysis and difficulty in flying were seen in five birds, whereas superficial lesions coincident with respiratory alterations were seen in two birds. Encapsulated yeasts suggestive of Cryptococcus sp. were seen in faecal smears stained with India ink in two cases. Histological examination of the birds showed cryptococcal cells in various tissues, including the beak, choana, sinus, lungs, air sacs, heart, liver, spleen, kidneys, intestines and central nervous system. High titres of cryptococcal antigen were observed in the serum of an affected bird. In this case, titres increased during treatment and the bird eventually died. Yeasts were isolated from the nasal mass, faeces and liver of one bird. Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii serovar B was identified based on biochemical, physiological and serological tests. These strains were resistant (minimum inhibitory concentration 64 μ g/ml) to fluconazole. This is the first report of C. neoformans var. gattii occurring in psittacine birds in Brazil. © 2004 ISHAM.

Influence of the environment on behavior patterns of laying hens kept in cages

The aim of this paper is to verify the correlation between environmental indicators and behaviors expressed by laying hens kept in cages. The birds react to a severe environment through their behaviors, end the behaviors can be monitored to identify the birds' welfare conditions. The behaviors birds display ere the result of stress caused by the combination of environmental temperature, relative humidity, radiant heat, and air speed (environmental temperature being the most important). In order to check the influence of the environment, an experiment was carried out on a commercial poultry farm, located in the city of Bastos. The study was initiated in March 2007, during four non-consecutive weeks. The birds' behaviors were recorded using video, by cameras installed in the cages. The birds behaviors were identified and noted for the frequency of occurrence for each bird, and the average duration of each behavior (in seconds), using video samples of 15 minutes recorded from 1 PM to 4 PM. The environmental variables collected were: air temperature, concentration of ammonia, relative air humidity, velocity of the air, noise, roof temperature, and light intensity. The observed behaviors were: opening wings, stretching, threatening, ruffling feathers, drinking water, aggressive pecking, eating, running, lying down, stretching head out of the cage, preening, mounting and prostrating. Principal Components Analysis was used to determine associations between the behavior variables and environmental variables described above. In this experiment, there were no significant correlations between behavioral variables and environmental variables.

Effects of the density, aviary type, breed, and age on the behaviors of laying hens kept in cages

An experiment was carried out in order to investigate the behaviors of laying hens due to the environmental factors of: density inside of the cage, aviary type, breed, and age. The experiment was configured as a factorial 4x2x2x2 study, with treatments being four different ages, two different breeds, two different cage densities, and two different aviaries. The birds' behaviors were recorded using video cameras installed in the cages, using samples of 15 minutes recorded from 12 PM to 4 PM. The observed behaviors, frequency and duration of behaviors (measured in seconds) were identified and noted related to each bird. The study was initiated in March 2007, during four non-consecutive weeks. The observed behaviors were: opening wings, stretching, threatening, ruffling feathers, drinking water, aggressive pecking, eating, running, lying down, stretching head out of the cage, preening, mounting, prostrating, and doing nothing (inactivity). Due to the non-normality of the data recorded, the Kruskal-Wallis statistical test of the MINITAB Statistical Software® was used to compare the medians of the variables. For breed factor, only the durations of the eating presented significant differences (p-value< 0.05). For cage density, there was a significant median difference (p-value< 0.05) for almost all behaviors observed. The average length of time of behaviors was higher for the lowest cage density. However, the frequency of behaviors was lmerfor the lowest cage density. The frequency of the behaviors to preen feathers, to lie down, to drink water and to stretch the head were higher in the aviary, where the groups of birds were smaller. The observed behaviors were particularly affected by experimental factors cage density, and aviary type, which directly affects the available space for each bird.

Simbiótico e extratos naturais na dieta de codornas Japonesas na fase de postura

The objective of this study was to assess the performance, tonic immobility time (TIT), intensity of injuries (II) and heterophil to lymphocyte ratio (H:L) by the addition of the symbiotic and plant extract (Aloe vera and Symphytum officinale) to the diet of Japanese quails. Ninety quails were used, distributed in randomized blocks with 3 treatments (0-control; 250 and 750 mg symbiotic and plant extract/kg of diet), five repetitions and six birds per cage. Feed intake, feed conversion, production and weight of eggs, viability, TIT, II and H:L were evaluated. Results showed that the addition of the product to the diet did not affect the performance, however, it decreased the TIT, II and the H:L of quails which received the highest level of the product in the diet. Thus, the use of symbiotic and plant extract in the diet has been promising regarding the behavioral and physiological parameters, decreasing the stress of the animals, mainly for the level of 750 mg/kg diet.

Substitution of corn and soybean oil by cassava meal and African palm tree oil in diets of laying hens

Fourty-two White Leghorns laying hens, from the commercial Cuban hybrid L-33, were used for eight weeks during the laying peak (36 to 43 weeks of age), to assess the substitution of corn by cassava root meal (Manihot esculenta Crantz) and the crude soybean oil by crude oil of African palm tree (Elaeis guineensis J.) in the diets of laying hens. Analysis of variance was conducted, according to simple classification design, with three treatments and 14 repetitions (a cage with a hen). The treatments consisted of three diets (1- corn meal + soybean oil; 2- 25 % cassava meal + African palm tree oil; 3- 53 % cassava meal + African palm tree oil), with 15.71 % CP; 3.83 % Ca and 0.36 % P available. The viability was of 100 % in all treatments. No differences were found for laying (92.21, 92.09 and 91.59 %), which surpassed the potential of this hybrid during the laying peak (90 %), conversion (118g feedstuff/egg in the three treatments), egg mass produced (3066, 3114 and 3071 g/bird) and mass conversion (1.99, 1.95 y 1.98 feed consumed/egg mass). The pigmentation of the egg yolk was reduced as the level of cassava meal increased in the diets (6, 4 and 3 at Roche's scale), as well as the cost of the feed consumed in 56 d per hen (2.56, 2.15 and 1.83 USD/bird). The possibility of substituting, totally, corn meal by that of cassava and soybean oil by that of the African palm tree in the diets of laying hens during the laying peak was determined, with positive economic effect and without damaging the productive performance of birds.

Meal of cassava foliage as pigment of diets with cassava meal and oil of African oil palm for laying hens

Twenty-eight White Leghorn laying hens, of the Cuban commercial hybrid L-33, were used for eight weeks within the laying peak (36 to 43 weeks of age), to evaluate the meal of root of cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) and the crude oil of African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis J.) as pigments of the egg yolks, out of their incorporation to the diet of laying hens during the laying peak. The birds were allocated in individual cages, with 108 g of feed/bird/d, water ad libitum, and 16 h of light. Analysis of variance was performed, according to one-way design with two treatments and fourteen repetitions (one cage with one hen). The treatments consisted of two diets (I- cassava meal + African palm oil, II- cassava meal + African oil palm + 2.5 % of cassava foliage meal). The viability was of 100 % in all the treatments. No differences were found for laying (91.59 and 90.10 %), which surpassed the potential of this hybrid during the laying peak (90 %), feed conversion/egg (118 and 120 g of feed/egg), mass of egg produced (3071 and 3027 g/bird) and mass conversion (1.98 and 2.00). The pigmentation of the egg yolk was doubled, by adding 2.5 % of meal of cassava foliage to the diets (3 and 6 in the scale of Roche). It was likeable to enhance the pigmentation of the egg yolk and reduce the feeding costs of the laying hens, when including 2.5 % of meal of cassava foliage to diets where the cassava meal and the oil of the African oil palm are basic sources of starch and lipids for the laying hens.

Functional extinction of birds drives rapid evolutionary changes in seed size

Local extinctions have cascading effects on ecosystem functions, yet little is known about the potential for the rapid evolutionary change of species in human-modified scenarios. We show that the functional extinction of large-gape seed dispersers in the Brazilian Atlantic forest is associated with the consistent reduction of the seed size of a keystone palm species. Among 22 palm populations, areas deprived of large avian frugivores for several decades present smaller seeds than nondefaunated forests, with negative consequences for palm regeneration. Coalescence and phenotypic selection models indicate that seed size reduction most likely occurred within the past 100 years, associated with human-driven fragmentation. The fast-paced defaunation of large vertebrates is most likely causing unprecedented changes in the evolutionary trajectories and community composition of tropical forests.