Influence of belt speed, grit sizes and pressure on the sanding of Eucalyptus grandis wood

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Florística e fitossociologia em parcelas permanentes da Mata Atlântica do sudeste do Brasil ao longo de um gradiente altitudinal

This paper summarizes floristic and phytossociology data of 11, out of 14 plots of 1 ha, allocated along an altitudinal gradient in the Serra do Mar, Silo Paulo, Brazil. The study was conducted at Serra do Mar State Park and the plots start at the sea level (10 m - plot of Restinga Forest that occurs at Praia da Fazenda, Picinguaba, municipality of Ubatuba) up to 1100 m above sea level (the Montane Ombrophilous Dense occurs alongside the Itamambuca Trail, municipality of Silo Luis do Paraitinga). The Restinga Forest occurs in Pleistocenic Coastal Plain where the soil is classified as a sandy Quartzipsamment (Quartzenic Neosol), while along the slopes of the Serra do Mar, the Ombrophylus Dense Forest grows on the top of a pre-Cambrian crystalline basement with granitic rocks, where the soil is a sandy-loam Dystrophic Inceptisol (Cambisol/Latosol). In all 14 plots soils are acidic (pH 3 - 4), chemically poor, with high dilution of nutrients and high saturation of aluminum. In the Restinga and at the foot of the slope the climate is Tropical/Subtropical Humid (Af/Cfa), with no dry season, an average annual rainfall over 2,200 mm and an average annual temperature of 22 degrees C. Towards the top of the Serra do Mar there is a gradual cooling along the slope, but there is no reduction in rainfall, so at 1,100 m above sea level the climate is classified as Humid Subtropical (Cfa/Cfb), with no dry season and an average annual temperature of 17 degrees C. It is important to remark that, almost daily, from 400 m above sea level up to the top of slopes the mountains are covered by a dense fog. In the 14 plots 21,733 individuals with DBH >= 4.8 cm, including trees, palms and ferns, were marked, measured and sampled. The average number of individuals sampled in each plot was 1264 ind.ha(-1)(+/- 218 SE 95%). Within the parameters considered trees prevailed (71% in the Montane ODF to 90% in the Restinga Forest), followed by palms (10% in the RF and 25% in the Montane Ombrophilous Dense Forest/ODF) and ferns (0% % in the RF and 4% in the Montane ODF). Regarding these proportions the Exploited Lowlands ODF differs from the others with only 1.8% of palm trees and striking 10% of ferns. The forest canopy is irregular with heights ranging from 7 to 9 m, rarely emergent trees reach 18 m, and due to this irregularity of the canopy the amount of light that gets through sets conditions for the development of hundreds of epiphytic species. Aside from Montana ODF, where the number of dead trees was more than 5% of individuals sampled, in the other phytophysiognomies this value was below 2.5%. In the 11 plots where the floristic study was conducted we found 562 species in 195 genera and 68 families. Only seven species - Euterpe edulis Mart. (Arecaceae), Calyptranthes lucida Mart. ex DC. and Marlierea tomentosa Cambess (both Myrtaceae), Guapira opposita (Veil.) Reitz (Nyctaginaceae), Cupania oblongifolia Mart. (Sapindaceae), Cecropia glaziovii Snethl. and Coussapoa microcarpa (Schott) Rizzini (both Urticaceae) - occurred from Restinga to Montane ODF, while 12 other species did not occur only in the Restinga Forest. Families with the greatest number of species are Myrtaceae (133 spp), Fabaceae (47 spp), Rubiaceae (49) and Lauraceae (49) throughout the gradient and Monimiaceae (21) specifically in portions Montane ODF. Only in the F plot, where logging has occurred between 1950 and 1985, the abundance of palm trees has been replaced by Cyatheaceae. The study shows a peak of diversity and richness, Shannon-Weiner index (H') ranging from 3.96 to 4.48 nats.ind(-1), in the intermediate altitudes (300 to 400 m) along the slope. Several explanations for this result are raised here, including the fact that these elevations are within the limits expansions and retractions of the different phytophysiognomies of the Atlantic ODF due to climate fluctuations during the Pleistocene. The results presented in this paper demonstrate the extraordinary richness of tree species of the Atlantic Rainforest from the northeastern coast of the State of São Paulo, reinforcing the importance of its conservation throughout the altitudinal gradient. The richness of this forest justifies a long term commitment to study its dynamics and functioning through permanent plots, and monitor the impacts of climate change in this vegetation.

The late precambrian K-alkaline magmatism in the Ribeira Fold Belt: a case study of the Piracaia Pluton, State of São Paulo, SE Brazil, and its potential mineralization (Cu, Zn, Gd)

The Pluriserial Ribeira Magmatic System-590 of the Late Precambrian Ribeira Fold Belt comprises seven groups of high-K rocks of crustal or mantle origin with ages ranging between 620 and 570 Ma. One of these groups is represented by transalkaline suites akin to appinitic lamprophyres. The suites assemble one or more of following lithologies: (+/- quartz) gabbros and monzogabbros, (+/- quartz) diorites and monzodiorites, (+/- quartz) monzonites and syenites in addition to rare granites. All these rocks occur together in the Piracaia pluton, State of São Paulo. The mineralogy of the Piracaia suite comprises variable amounts of plagioclase (An 60-10), alkali-feldspars (orthoclase, microcline, albite), ortho- (Fe-hypersthene) and clinopyroxenes (augite), amphiboles (hornblende and rare late Fe-hastingsite), abundant biotite, quartz, opaques, sphene, allanite and zircon. Several magmatic pulses constructed the pluton. The Piracaia magma bulk trend evolved initially along the silica-undersaturation plane with simultaneous fractionation of accessory, mafic and felsic minerals. These are segregated in feldspar-rich cumulates. In the late stage, the evolutionary trend followed two distinct paths: one along the or-ab thermal barrier with the crystallization of syenites; the second one along the thermal valley in the or-ab-qz subsystem, producing quartz-syenites and granites. The source of the Piracaia magma was a 'vein-plus-wall-rock-system '. Together the pulses reflect increasing and decreasing participation of peridotites and mica pyroxenites, respectively, in the magmatogenic process. The magmatic pulses were stored in magma chambers, several drained by deep faults or fractures, which were successively reactivated and recharged. Each new pulse underwent mixing with earlier residual magma, followed by fractionation. During ascent through the hot and thickened post-collisional crust, the magma pulses underwent minor compositional changes by crustal contamination. The concentration of valuable elements (Cu, Zn, Gd) in the Piracaia pluton occurred during two phases of the magmatic evolution. Cu and Zn were enriched in cumulates and Gd was concentrated in residual quartz-syenitic veins. Due to their homogeneous dark colour and texture, the monzodiorites are exploited both for polished dimension stones and supports for sensitive scientific instruments. (C) 2001 Elsevier B.V. Ltd. All rights reserved.

Vertical displacement during late-collisional escape tectonics (Brasiliano Orogeny) in the Ribeira Belt, São Paulo State, Brazil

During the Brasiliano-Pan-African Orogeny, West Gondwana formed by collisional processes around the Sao Francisco-Congo Craton. The Ribeira belt, in southeastern Brazil, resulted from northwestward collision (650-600 Ma), followed by large-scale northeast-southwest dextral strike-slip shear movements related to late-collisional escape tectonics (ca 600 Ma).In São Paulo State, three groups, also interpreted as terranes, are recognised in the Ribeira Belt, the Embu, Itapira and Sao Rogue Groups. The Embu and Itapira Groups are formed of sillimanite-gneisses, schists and migmatites intruded by Neoproterozoic calc-alkaline granitoids, all thrusted northwestward. The Sao Rogue Group is composed of metasediments and metavolcanics in greenschist-facies. Its deformation indicates a transpressional regime associated with tectonic escape. Sub-alkaline granites were emplaced in shallow levels during this regime. Microstructural studies along the Itu, Moreiras and Taxaquara Shear Zones demonstrate the coexistence of horizontal and Vertical displacement components during the transpressional regime. The vertical component is regarded as responsible for the lateral juxtaposition of different crustal levels. (C) 1999 Elsevier B.V. Limited. All rights reserved.

The Atlantic granulite belt, Brazil.

The low- to medium-P Atlantic granulite belt was largely formed at 2700 m.y., but 3100 m.y. ages have been obtained from the granulite belt and adjacent craton. -J.A.H.

The Araguaia fold belt, Brazil: A reactivated Brasiliano-Pan-African cycle (550 Ma) geosuture

The Araguaia-Tocantins geosuture, which separates the Araguaia Fold Belt (AFB) from the Archean Amazonian Craton, was active in the late Middle Proterozoic. The Baixo Araguaia Supergroup was deposited, consisting of the Estrondo Group (lower quartzites with intercalated schists), Xambioá Formation (schists), and Canto da Vazante Formation (upper feldspathic schists); and the Tocantins Group consisting of the Couto Magalhaës Formation (phyllites, quartzites, slates, limestones, and metacherts) and Pequizeiro Formation (upper chlorite schists); and associated mafic-ultramafic bodies. The deformational history includes four regional phases of deformation within this supracrustal sequence: recumbent folds with vergence to the west; refolding with a N-S trend; an intense crenulation episode; and late thrusting from east to west. Metamorphism is of intermediate or intermediate-high pressure type with garnet, biotite, chlorite, and sericite isograds succeeded by a slightly or non-metamorphosed zone, from east to west. Rocks surrounding sparse gneissic-cored domes contain isograds of staurolite, kyanite, and fibrolite. These isograds are believed to be associated with the 1100 Ma Uruaçuano event. The Brasiliano Orogeny strongly affected the AFB with displacements due to transcurrent reactivation of great and old faults of the basement, slight folding in the supracrustal sequence, intrusion of small granite bodies, and development of domes with associated normal faults. The area underlain by the Estrondo Group was uplifted at this time, causing the deposition of the Rio das Barreiras polymictic conglomerate of the central area. K-Ar and Rb-Sr analyses date this thermo-tectonic event at 550 ± 100 Ma. The Archean basement is exposed in the cores of domes as a granite-gneiss association, the Colméia complex, which shows thermo-tectonic features that may be interpreted as polycyclic imprints (Jequié, Transamazonian?, Uruaçuano, and Brasiliano Events). © 1989.

Tectonic setting and U/Pb zircon dating of the plutonic Socorro Complex in the Transpressive Rio Paraíba do Sul Shear Belt, SE Brazil

The Precambrian Rio Paraíba do Sul Shear Belt comprises a 200-km-wide anastomosing network of NE-SW trending ductile shear zones extending over 1000 km of the southeastern coast of Brazil. Granulitic, gneissic-migmatitic, and granitoid terrains as well as low- to medium-grade metavolcanosedimentary sequences are included within it. These rocks were affected by strong contractional, tangential tectonics, due to west-northwestward oblique convergence of continental blocks. Subsequent transpressional tectonics accomodated large dextral, orogen-parallel movements and shortening. The plutonic Socorro Complex is one of many deformed granites with a foliation subparallel to that of the shear belt and exposes crosscutting relationships between its tectonic, magmatic, and metamorphic structures. These relationships point to a continuous magmatic evolution related to regional thrusts and strike slip, ductile shear zones. The tectonic and magmatic structural features of the Serra do Lopo Granite provide a model of emplacement by sheeting along shear zones during coeval strike-slip and cross shortening of country rocks. Geochronological data indicate that the main igneous activity of Socorro Complex spanned at least 55 million years, from the late stage of the northwestward ductile thrusting (650 Ma), through right-lateral strike slip (595 Ma) deformation. The country rocks yield discordant age data, which reflect a strong imprint of the Transamazonian tectono-metamorphic event (1.9 to 2.0 Ma). We propose a model for the origin of calcalkaline granites of the Ribeira Belt by partial melting of the lower crust with small contributions of the lithospheric mantle during transpressional thickening of plate margins, which were bounded by deep shear zones. The transpressional regime also seems to have focused granite migration from deeper into higher crustal levels along these shear zones.

Bayesian and multivariate methods applied to favorability quantification in recôncavo Basin and Ribeira Belt, Brazil

A methodology to define favorable areas in petroleum and mineral exploration is applied, which consists in weighting the exploratory variables, in order to characterize their importance as exploration guides. The exploration data are spatially integrated in the selected area to establish the association between variables and deposits, and the relationships among distribution, topology, and indicator pattern of all variables. Two methods of statistical analysis were compared. The first one is the Weights of Evidence Modeling, a conditional probability approach (Agterberg, 1989a), and the second one is the Principal Components Analysis (Pan, 1993). In the conditional method, the favorability estimation is based on the probability of deposit and variable joint occurrence, with the weights being defined as natural logarithms of likelihood ratios. In the multivariate analysis, the cells which contain deposits are selected as control cells and the weights are determined by eigendecomposition, being represented by the coefficients of the eigenvector related to the system's largest eigenvalue. The two techniques of weighting and complementary procedures were tested on two case studies: 1. Recôncavo Basin, Northeast Brazil (for Petroleum) and 2. Itaiacoca Formation of Ribeira Belt, Southeast Brazil (for Pb-Zn Mississippi Valley Type deposits). The applied methodology proved to be easy to use and of great assistance to predict the favorability in large areas, particularly in the initial phase of exploration programs. © 1998 International Association for Mathematical Geology.

Isotopic characterization of the metabasites and amphibolites of the Acungui and Setuva Groups of the Ribeira Belt

Pb, Rb, Sr, Sm and Nd isotope analyses were carried out on amphibolitic rocks from Campo Largo (PR), Rio Branco do Sul (PR) and Adrianópolis (PR) and for the metabasite from Adrianópolis and Apiai (SP), all belonging to the Açungui and Setuva Groups, southern portion of the Ribeira Belt. These occurrences were chosen because each exhibits geochemical data indicative of a mantle source, having different signatures. Geochronologic determinations are available only for the Apiai metagabbro with Neoproterozoic ages of 617 ± 4 Ma (U/Pb in zircon) and 839 ± 85 Ma (Rb/Sr, whole rock). Age determinations by Sm/Nd mineral isochron using whole rock, plagioclase and pyroxene yield values of 885 ± 53 Ma for the Apiai metagabbro and 820 ± 84 Ma for the Adrianópolis metabasite. These results agree within error with the Rb/Sr isochron of 839 ± 85 Ma may possibly be interpreted as the time of extraction of the magma from the mantle, as suggested by positive εNd(850) values (+2,76) from an Adrianópolis sample. An εNd values versus 87Sr/86Sr diagram shows that each studied occurrence plots in a different position, following approximately the mantle array trend, the most primitive being the metabasite of Adrian-acopolis, near the MORB field, and the most enriched being the amphibolite from the same region, near the enriched mantle and or crustal contamination field. The distinct difference in isotopic signatures between the amphibolite and metabasite suggests derivation from different mantle sources, as supported by available geochemical data. Nevertheless, some of the samples show isotopic evidence of the action of metamorphism, crustal contamination and weathering.

U-Pb geochronology of the southern Brasília belt (SE-Brazil): Sedimentary provenance, Neoproterozoic orogeny and assembly of West Gondwana

The Brasília belt borders the western margin of the São Francisco Craton and records the history of ocean opening and closing related to the formation of West Gondwana. This study reports new U-Pb data from the southern sector of the belt in order to provide temporal limits for the deposition and ages of provenance of sediments accumulated in passive margin successions around the south and southwestern margins of the São Francisco Craton, and date the orogenic events leading to the amalgamation of West Gondwana. Ages of detrital zircons (by ID-TIMS and LA-MC-ICPMS) were obtained from metasedimentary units of the passive margin of the São Francisco Craton from the main tectonic domains of the belt: the internal allochthons (Araxá Group in the Áraxá and Passos Nappes), the external allochthons (Canastra Group, Serra da Boa Esperança Metasedimentary Sequence and Andrelândia Group) and the autochthonous or Cratonic Domain (Andrelândia Group). The patterns of provenance ages for these units are uniform and are characterised as follows: Archean- Paleoproterozoic ages (3.4-3.3, 3.1-2.7, and 2.5-2.4Ga); Paleoproterozoic ages attributed to the Transamazonian event (2.3-1.9Ga, with a peak at ca. 2.15Ga) and to the ca. 1.75Ga Espinhaço rifting of the São Francisco Craton; ages between 1.6 and 1.2Ga, with a peak at 1.3Ga, revealing an unexpected variety of Mesoproterozoic sources, still undetected in the São Francisco Craton; and ages between 0.9 and 1.0Ga related to the rifting event that led to the individualisation of the São Francisco paleo-continent and formation of its passive margins. An amphibolite intercalation in the Araxá Group yields a rutile age of ca. 0.9Ga and documents the occurrence of mafic magmatism coeval with sedimentation in the marginal basin. Detrital zircons from the autochthonous and parautochthonous Andrelândia Group, deposited on the southern margin of the São Francisco Craton, yielded a provenance pattern similar to that of the allochthonous units. This result implies that 1.6-1.2Ga source rocks must be present in the São Francisco Craton. They could be located either in the cratonic area, which is mostly covered by the Neoproterozoic epicontinental deposits of the Bambuí Group, or in the outer paleo-continental margin, buried under the allochthonous units of the Brasília belt. Crustal melting and generation of syntectonic crustal granites and migmatisation at ca. 630Ma mark the orogenic event that started with westward subduction of the São Francisco plate and ended with continental collision against the Paraná block (and Goiás terrane). Continuing collision led to the exhumation and cooling of the Araxá and Passos metamorphic nappes, as indicated by monazite ages of ca. 605Ma and mark the final stages of tectonometamorphic activity in the southern Brasília belt. Whilst continent-continent collision was proceeding on the western margin of the São Francisco Craton along the southern Brasília belt, eastward subduction in the East was generating the 634-599Ma Rio Negro magmatic arc which collided with the eastern São Francisco margin at 595-560Ma, much later than in the Brasília belt. Thus, the tectonic effects of the Ribeira belt reached the southernmost sector of the Brasília belt creating a zone of superposition. The thermal front of this event affected the proximal Andrelândia Group at ca. 588Ma, as indicated by monazite age. The participation of the Amazonian craton in the assembly of western Gondwana occurred at 545-500Ma in the Paraguay belt and ca. 500Ma in the Araguaia belt. This, together with the results presented in this work lead to the conclusion that the collision between the Paraná block and Goiás terrane with the São Francisco Craton along the Brasília belt preceded the accretion of the Amazonian craton by 50-100 million years. © 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.