16 resultados para Ficção brasileira - Séc. XX
em Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte(UFRN)
Resumo:
Esta dissertação analisa os recursos metaficcionais nos contos e romances de Rubem Fonseca, incluindo os que tratam de eventos e personagens históricos, fundindo, assim, ficção e História. Para tanto, nos apoiamos em teóricos que se debruçam sobre a metaficção, esta tendência que marca o Pós-Modernismo em literatura, a exemplo de Linda Hutcheon (1991), Patricia Waugh (2003) e Gustavo Bernardo (2010). Um dos escritores brasileiros mais respeitados dentro e fora de nossas fronteiras, Fonseca estreia nos anos 1960 trilhando um caminho próprio dentro da prosa de ficção brasileira, não só pelas narrativas violentas, faceta pela qual ele é mais conhecido, mas também pelo caráter autorreflexivo, autoconsciente e digressivo de seus textos. Acusado de ser repetitivo, nota-se que, se é verdade que seus personagens em geral são “tipos” (o artista culto, o detetive, o “garanhão”), ele costuma experimentar na forma, variando os focos narrativos de maneira a entretecer camadas narrativas e parodiar gêneros: O caso Morel, por exemplo, é um romance policial que implode o romance policial; o conto "H.M.S. Cormorant em Paranaguá", por seu turno, é uma homenagem à segunda geração romântica brasileira, representada por Álvares de Azevedo, em uma conformação pós-moderna de pastiche. A obra cinquentenária de Rubem Fonseca joga luz sobre questões que estão na “ordem do dia”, como o tripé artista-sociedade-mercado, e introduz um outro olhar sobre o passado histórico - incluindo a História da cultura, principalmente da literatura. As narrativas aqui analisadas testam os limites que separam – ou não – a ficção da dita realidade, e são por nós classificadas nas seguintes categorias: autobiografia romanceada, romance biográfico, romance histórico pós-moderno, pastiche, metaficção historiográfica e metaficção policial.
Resumo:
En el florescer de la modernidad brasileña, surge la poesía de Cecília Meireles, revelando la mujer que opta conscientemente por la labor intelectual, por la especulación filosófica del amor y por la pasión de escribir. La lectura de su obra representa um desafío a la sensibilidad del estudioso de la literatura. En esta disertación, tratamos de ese trabajo em filigranas que la autora realiza. Nos situamos em las obras Viagem y Mar Absoluto como anclas simbólicas de un discurso que nos remite a la relación del poetar com el pensar. Se inserta, así, esa poética ceciliana en um modo filosófico platónico, trayendo elementos simbólicos, míticos, metafóricos capaces de remitirnos a las interpretaciones filosóficas del siglo XX, tal la heideggeriana que entiende la poesía dentro del principio del eterno juego del ser, que es lo del próprio lenguaje. Nuestra preocupación fundamental fue trillar los caminos del erostismo filosófico y la búsqueda de la autora em transcender la rigidez de los límites entre el masculino y el femenino, lanzándose em um imaginario poético cristiano, reinterpretado neoplatonicamente. Se exponen Mujer y Letras al espejo, velando y desvelando marcas e trazos de identidad. Tal juego especular nos ofreció elementos poéticos, estéticos y una experiencia ceciliana del lenguaje del ser, designio de la poesía mísma. De esta nuestra iniciativa, que es también reflejada y reflexiva, reunimos a las Letras la Filosofia, resaltando que ambas de manera diferente - nos dieron acceso a la construcción de esa poesía en que fulguran la escritura, el ser y la naturaleza metaforizada, caracterizando la multiplicidad de sentidos y la pluralidad de voces del presente y del pasado
Resumo:
Esta dissertação analisa os recursos metaficcionais nos contos e romances de Rubem Fonseca, incluindo os que tratam de eventos e personagens históricos, fundindo, assim, ficção e História. Para tanto, nos apoiamos em teóricos que se debruçam sobre a metaficção, esta tendência que marca o Pós-Modernismo em literatura, a exemplo de Linda Hutcheon (1991), Patricia Waugh (2003) e Gustavo Bernardo (2010). Um dos escritores brasileiros mais respeitados dentro e fora de nossas fronteiras, Fonseca estreia nos anos 1960 trilhando um caminho próprio dentro da prosa de ficção brasileira, não só pelas narrativas violentas, faceta pela qual ele é mais conhecido, mas também pelo caráter autorreflexivo, autoconsciente e digressivo de seus textos. Acusado de ser repetitivo, nota-se que, se é verdade que seus personagens em geral são “tipos” (o artista culto, o detetive, o “garanhão”), ele costuma experimentar na forma, variando os focos narrativos de maneira a entretecer camadas narrativas e parodiar gêneros: O caso Morel, por exemplo, é um romance policial que implode o romance policial; o conto "H.M.S. Cormorant em Paranaguá", por seu turno, é uma homenagem à segunda geração romântica brasileira, representada por Álvares de Azevedo, em uma conformação pós-moderna de pastiche. A obra cinquentenária de Rubem Fonseca joga luz sobre questões que estão na “ordem do dia”, como o tripé artista-sociedade-mercado, e introduz um outro olhar sobre o passado histórico - incluindo a História da cultura, principalmente da literatura. As narrativas aqui analisadas testam os limites que separam – ou não – a ficção da dita realidade, e são por nós classificadas nas seguintes categorias: autobiografia romanceada, romance biográfico, romance histórico pós-moderno, pastiche, metaficção historiográfica e metaficção policial.
Resumo:
Since the middle 80 s from the 20th century, some musical genres associated to the Brazilian Northeastern region notably the forró, coco de embolada and repente de viola have been gradually incorporated to the musical production of south France linked to the occitanista trend, currently linking many musicians and groups from those regions in both countries. This paper is engaged in reflecting on the particular experience of the groups formed by the Escambiar Association, located on the city of Toulouse, and specially the duet Fabulous Trobadors, whose compositions are mostly made in the coco de embolada form. Watching the motivations and the processes that led to the creation of the groups from this association and it s current operation, this study investigates the transcultural phenomenon, that allow to cross two symbolic universes through rationalizing speeches about music, considering the locality s production in the midst of a political debate that involve questions about cultural identity and tradition
Resumo:
Since the middle 80 s from the 20th century, some musical genres associated to the Brazilian Northeastern region notably the forró, coco de embolada and repente de viola have been gradually incorporated to the musical production of south France linked to the occitanista trend, currently linking many musicians and groups from those regions in both countries. This paper is engaged in reflecting on the particular experience of the groups formed by the Escambiar Association, located on the city of Toulouse, and specially the duet Fabulous Trobadors, whose compositions are mostly made in the coco de embolada form. Watching the motivations and the processes that led to the creation of the groups from this association and it s current operation, this study investigates the transcultural phenomenon, that allow to cross two symbolic universes through rationalizing speeches about music, considering the locality s production in the midst of a political debate that involve questions about cultural identity and tradition
Resumo:
In this work we present the description and analysis of the clitics collocation patterns in prepositional infinitive sentences within the Brazilian writing in the centuries XIX and XX. The corpus in analysis is comprised of letters of newspaper readers and newspaper writers, as well as of advertisements (ads) taken from Brazilian newspapers from different regions / states – Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, Ceará and Pernambuco – and written in the Centuries XIX and XX. They belong to the common minimum corpus of the project named Projeto para a História do Português Brasileiro (PHPB or Project to the History of the Brazilian Portuguese, in English). Its analysis is based on theoreticalmethodological postulates of the Theory of Variation and Change (WEINREICH; LABOV; HERZOG, 1968[2006]; LABOV, 1972[2008]); on the Theory of Principles and Parameters (CHOMSKY, 1981, 1986) and on the model of Grammar Competition (KROCH, 1989; 2001). By trying to articulate those presuppositions from both the theories we present a proposition of theoretical interface between the Variation Theory and the Grammar one. Concerning the empirical results achieved by means of this research, we could figure that, in the context in which there were prepositional infinitive sentences, the most significant independent variable to the occurrence of the proclisis is the type of preposition that comes before the verb in the infinitive. Before that, we found out that there are prepositions which strongly direct the proclisis, as it is the case of the prepositions in Portuguese sem, por, de and para, with all of them presenting Relative Weights over 0,52. Another important result is the one attested in the data referring the state of Rio de Janeiro (RJ). This state is the only one of the sample which is located in the Southeastern region and also presents itself as the main proclisis conditioner amongst the localities pertaining to the sample. In order to explain those results, we raised the hypothesis that the proclisis implementation may be more advanced in the Southeastern than in the Northeastern Brazil, however that hypothesis must be confirmed or refuted in future works. We also present, in this work, a theoretical explanation about the clitics colocation in prepositional infinitive sentences within the Brazilian writing in the XIX and XX centuries. The theoretical explanation we found to interpret the achieved results associates Magro’s proposition (2005), regarding the existence of prepositions occupying the nucleus PP and the existence of prepositions which can play the role of a completer and occupy the nucleus CP, according to Galves (2000; 2001), regarding the existent relation between the clitic colocation and the association of traits-phi to the functional categories COMP, Tense and Person. Our proposition is that the occurrence of prepositions which occupy the nucleus CP causes changes in the values attributed to the traits-phi and to the strong Vtraits in the functional categories COMP, Tense and Person. Thus, we defend that proclisis in Brazilian Portuguese (BP) is derived from the movement of the verb to the functional category tense in which there is the association of traits +V and traits +AGR, what legitimates the proclisis according to Galves´s proposition (2000; 2001).
Resumo:
Este trabalho busca compreender o que é a Escola Brasileira de Clarineta a partir da segunda metade do século XX, tomando como referência a experiência e a história de vida de um clarinetista que participou de seu processo de consolidação, a saber, o Professor José Cardoso Botelho. Através da ferramenta da memória social, foi possível se obter dados que coligissem traços característicos desta escola, assim como informações históricas a partir dos quais os aspectos observados parecem ter surgido. A análise demonstrou, ainda, a forte presença do paradigma Mestre-Aprendiz na construção desta escola e como este se relaciona com a pedagogia, formação profissional e concepção ideológica na área das Práticas Interpretativas. A abordagem utilizada confia que a história de vida do personagem investigado envolve-se com a história da própria escola, de sorte que a sua trajetória é permeada por elementos constitutivos da identidade de ambos, o mestre e a escola a que pertence.
Resumo:
The career of civil engineer Henrique de Novaes, a remarkable figure in the academic, technical and political fields, demonstrates its extensive and relevant work across Brazil in the first half of the twentieth century. It covered from the design of water supply and sewage works, road and rail transport networks, works against drought in the Northeast, hydroelectric and harbor facilities to the urbanization planning and architectural projects, which displays a systematic and multiple production. City and territory conformed to his fields of verification, practical and above all, transformation. The search for understanding of the inclusion of a social actor in this process thus contributes to the specific analysis of the doings of Henrique de Novaes, who graduated at Polytechnic School of Rio de Janeiro in 1906. From a polymorphic activity in different scales, one tries to figure how, through academic education or professional practice, urban history in Brazil can be told or built. The introduction of technological innovations matched the purposes of planning and urban sprawl, as well as met the specifications of regulation and institutionalization of public infrastructure services at the time. The overall plans proposed by the engineer thought of the city as a whole, interconnected to the structural networks. At the same time, the knowledge of a larger physical scale the territory bounces back in the urban in a relationship of reciprocity and completeness. The objective research, therefore, tries to understand the roles played by Henrique de Novaes s works and academic education in the accomplishment of systematic modernization of Brazilian urban space and territory, recovering a little known historical figure by current historiography. It is proposed, as methodological axis, that the study of this professional career configures itself as an essential element for understanding the idea of progress embodied in the technical studies and proposals for improvements and sanitation nationwide in the first half of the twentieth century . The primary sources for the construction of this analysis were technical articles in journals of the period ( Clube de Engenharia , Viação e Revista Brasileira de Engenharia ), and technical reports, government messages, newspaper articles published at the time, autobiographical reports and the engineer s verbal communications with relatives. The work is structured in three chapters: "Biographical traces, academic education and 'technical and political' activities" illustrates the initiation into the technical, public and political environment; Chapter 2, "Technique and territory" outlines his network understanding through sanitation and transport services; Chapter 3 "Technique and City" describes the influence of polytechnics knowledge on the propositions of modernization of cities; Finally, "Final Thoughts: An Evaluation," presents an overview of the affiliations and practice of an engineer in the different scales, and its contribution to the modernization of Brazilian urban and territorial space
Resumo:
A democracia tem representado ao longo da História o mais perfeito mecanismo político de convivência social, encontrando na soberania popular seu fundamento e legitimidade. De berço grego, instituiu-se sob princípios que radicavam o poder político no povo, exercido diretamente na ágora ateniense. O iluminismo dos séculos XVII e XVIII reacendeu o ideal democrático, encontrando no positivismo sua base teórica. O poder passou a ser exercido por via de representantes eleitos periodicamente. O locus da atividade política era o parlamento, ambiente fechado e refratário à participação popular, cingida, à época, ao voto do cidadão nos períodos eleitorais. O distanciamento entre governantes e governados gerou déficit de legitimidade no modelo liberal clássico, levando o constitucionalismo do século XX a abandonar o rigor formal positivista, para adotar uma nova hermenêutica, de base axiológica e centrada na participação direta do povo nas instâncias do poder. A Constituição Federal de 1988 compendiou a democracia participativa em seu texto, declarando no parágrafo único, de seu artigo 1º, que todo o poder emana do povo. Consagrou como base da soberania popular o sufrágio universal, o voto direto, secreto e de igual valor, além do plebiscito, do referendo e da iniciativa popular de leis. Garantiu ainda a ação popular como ferramenta de cidadania. A participação popular foi restringida com o advento da Lei nº 9.907/98, que impôs bloqueios processuais para seu exercício, gerando déficit de legitimidade no sistema representativo brasileiro. O propósito desse trabalho é demonstrar a necessidade de se estabelecer um novo espaço público na ordem constitucional do Brasil, de textura aberta e dialógica e de perspectiva emancipatória, que customize a participação do povo nas instâncias do poder, a partir da desburocratização dos instrumentos de soberania popular já existentes e da adoção de outros institutos democráticos semidireto, notadamente a iniciativa popular de emenda à Constituição, a revogação de mandato eletivo e o veto popular
Resumo:
The diachronic studies marked the first decades of the 20th century in Brazilian linguistics, passing by an ostracism period after the 50s. Mainly from the 90s especially with the project, created in 1997, Para a história do português brasileiro (PHPB), which has systemized, in national ambit, the programme related to the area of diachrony the historical studies retake forces and have gradually increased since then. Our work is set in the new scene of Brazilian historical linguistics and it is associated to two research programmes: i) the constitution of a diachronic corpus; ii) the diachrony of text and discourse. As regards the first programme, we made effort to constitute a diachronic corpus of official letters about Rio Grande do Norte, we called cartas oficiais norte-rio-grandenses, written in 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. The chosen for bureaucrat letters occurred for they represent a textual category very productive in historical contexts, mostly 18th and 19th centuries, in which the command of writing was the least and also because they bring, almost always explicitly, the information of where, when, for whom and from whom, as remembers Fonseca (2003). The rules for constituting the corpus were based, although not strictly, on the orientation from PHPB. In respect to the second programme, we set up on the ideas of coserian base came from the studies on discourse traditions (TD) (Koch, 1997; Kabatek, 2006) amongst which that the texts are shaped so as to follow their own tradition (Coseriu, 2007), and we turned to Diplomatics (Belloto, 2002) in order to do the characterization of this corpus by the application of concepts from Diplomatics and TD as well as by the presentation of the structures that form those official letters: their textual genres, a kind of TD, with their macrostructures; and some of their formulaic expressions (microstructures), another sort of TD. This stage of characterizing will pay attention, as far as possible, to the dynamic between tradition and innovation that happen in the actualization of those textual structures along the centuries. This work intends to contribute with the researches connected to Historical Linguistics in Rio Grande do Norte, more specifically the ones related to the constitution of diachronic corpora and to TD; and with the study of official documents, textual category about which there are almost no studies (cf. Silveira, 2007)
Resumo:
This treatise analyzes the identitary setting called Veneza Brasileira (Brazilian Venice) which is subscribed to the discoursive materialization related to the imagetic setting (literary and mediatic) produced about the city of Recife. The main investigation of this research is to examine the way how the identitary setting called Veneza Brasileira has been constructed in the imagetic setting practices about the city of Recife in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. This study is subscribed to the Applied Linguistics and considers the theoretical perspectives that come from the Cultural Studies which investigation basis is focused on authors such as: Hall (2006); Bauman (1999; 2001;2005); Silva (2000); and Castells (2000) related to the discussion over identity, as well as the discussion over Urban Studies presented in Santos (1997; 1999); Ferrara (1998); and Pesavento (2001). Moreover it is also based on the theoretical basis found in Foucault (2004; 2006; 2007). Furthermore theoretical-methodological approaches rely on the French Discourse Analysis (DA) found in Orlandi (2001); Gregolin (2007); and Courtine (2006). On being so, this treatise aims to: analyze the meaning effects over the production of the identitary setting, especially the so-called Veneza Brasileira, in the imagetic setting discoursive practices (Poems, Post Cards and Touristic Guides) which are produced over the urban setting of the city of Recife. This research is characterized by being qualitative and interpretative and the theoretical analytical approaches contributed to the reading of both poetic and iconic images presented in the excerpts of poems from the nineteenth century and early twentieth century in: Manuel Bandeira s poems, Carlos Pena Filho s poems, and João Cabral de Melo Neto s poems which were produced in the early and late twentieth century. Moreover, this study observed some photographic images in Post Cards and Touristic Guides related to the visiting of historical sites in Recife. One could conclude that the imagetic setting discourse about Recife produced different identitary effects over the so-called Veneza Brasileira along these three centuries: in the nineteenth century, the poetry constructed the utopia city along with the meaning effect of identitary unit; as for the twentieth century, one observed an oscillation between a utopia/heteroutopia city meaning effect of both united and fragmented identity, the latter one is prevalent. As for the twenty-first century, the media reconstructed over again the utopia city, and consequently, produced meaning effect of identitary unit. These same meaning effects of identity either corroborate or contradict to/with the concepts of the postmodernism over identity along these three centuries. In other words, considering the imagetic setting, this oscillation occurs in the proportion of one finds an (ex) inclusion of social agents that construct these same identities.
Resumo:
Football, understood as a phenomenon of sports practice and nearly universal coverage, can also be seen as a game whose operation circumvents the cultural universe of people who practice it. Much more than just a sport, so this game is a cultural phenomenon par excellence, bearing a communicational and aesthetic dimension whose occurrence has been spotted in various fields of scientific and cultural. Therefore, it is as game and as a phenomenon of culture, we intend to focus on football here as an object of study. Our aim is to investigate the sport in Brazil taking the Literature and Journalism as privileged instances of their representation in the media. Thus, the central idea of this research is to show when and how football has become a recurrent theme in Brazilian literature, starting with its journalistic approach until we get an overview of the aesthetic representation of the game, Literature as the main focus of attention and taking the genre of fiction story as material fact of their representation. With this approach, we intend to develop an overall view, overview of the literature about football in our country and at the same time, particularize this vision in some representative authors of it, like the writer-journalist Mario Filho (the historian, essayist on the modernization of chronic specific theme), José Lins do Rego (writer passionate about the game), Nelson Rodrigues (the esthetician that elevated the sport to the status of art by chronic), Lima Barreto (who along with Antonio de Alcantara Machado pioneered the formalized within the fiction) and the storytellers of the topic itself. In the end, we intend to infer the results of evaluations and reviews of books and authors listed, we have examined a wide sense, but also vertical (and which were focused on a socio-historical perspective and critical-aesthetic) within the assumption that seems be a homology between the way football practice amongst us will historically winning characteristics as to form a Brazilian school of football, and how our writers, journalists will be addressing the topic, which also would focus on creating a "Brazilian way" of telling literary football. The proof of this hypothesis operational work together with the development of historiography and the necessity arising from it, creating a "Guide to Reading football theme in fictional tale of Brazil" shut the focal perspective of this study
Resumo:
La historia de la expansión colonial en los sertónes del Seridó del siglo XVIII y el asentamiento de los primeros pobladores alrededor de las haciendas de ganado y más tarde de la cultura de algodón, oculto la presencia afrodescendiente que ya regia esa vasta región. Por otro lado, la esclavitud se observaba como un fenómeno de segunda prioridad y leve, por el hecho de tener un número de esclavos muy reducido en relación al litoral azucarero; sin embargo no se puede minimizar las marcas que dejaron más de tres siglos de dominación colonial, pues la violencia simbólica en su descripción aun existe. Este trabajo tiene como objetivo reflexionar sobre las causas y consecuencias de la extinción precoz de la presencia afro-brasileña y de la invisibilidad de los núcleos familiares en el municipio de Acari. A través de las memorias de las familias Nunes, Inácio y Pereira, antiguos moradores del Saco de los Pereira y de las familias Pedros, Paula, Higinos y Félix outroras moradores de las haciendas de la región, pretendemos reflexionar sobre las actividades de sobrevivencia, las relaciones de trabajo, la propiedad de la tierra y los robos ocurridos en los siglos XIX – XX, así como mostrar la importancia de las tradiciones familiares en la elaboración de los discursos sobre el pasado y de las variadas identidades. La metodología utilizada durante la investigación, mantuvo como foco las entrevistas que contemplan historias de la vida y las memorias de nuestros interlocutores, en particular los afrodescendientes. Los relatos colocan una luz sobre las vivencias en el período algodonero, los oficios realizados en las haciendas (vaquero, bordado, culinaria, losa) donde se muestra la importancia de las familias negras para entender el escenario Acarienses. También fotos y documentos cartoriáles que ayudaron a componer las historias de vida. El estudio revela la presencia de muchas familias negras vinculadas a las haciendas, demostrando que existe otra versión de la historia local, teniendo como protagonistas aquellos cuya memoria fue silenciada y quedando así marcados por el estigma de la esclavitud.
Resumo:
Based on the theoretical and methodological presuppositions of the theory of language variation and change (cf. WEINREICH; LABOV; HERZOG, 2006 [1968]), it is described and analyzed in this article the process of variation/change concerning the second person possessive pronouns in letters from readers of Brazilian newspapers from the XIX and XX centuries. These letters feature a portrait of the Brazilian press from the South (Santa Catarina), Southeast (Rio de Janeiro) and Northeast (Bahia and Rio Grande do Norte) regions in each century and are part of the Project for Brazilian Portuguese History‘s (PHPB) printed common minimal corpus. The point of departure of this work is the idea that the use of variant forms of expressing second person possessive pronouns – teu and seu – results from the interaction characterizing the varied social roles performed by the letters‘ senders. Arranging communicative units, which gather elements/features denoting time and space, conditioned and determined by socio-historical and cultural aspects, the readers‘ letters, turn out to be a promising research field under the light of this paper. More specifically, In the row of presented results in studies about the pronominal system in the diachroneity of/in Brazilian Portuguese (PB) (FARACO, 2002; LORENGIAN-PENKAL, 2007; CALLOU; LOPES, 2003; LOPES; DUARTE, 2003; MENON, 2005; ARDUIN; COELHO, 2006; LOPES, 2009; MARCOTULIO, 2010), the results featured in here point at different usages of the possessives, noticing the coexistence of the forms teu/tua and seu/sua strongly conditioned by the socio-discursive nature of the readers‘ letters in the course of the centuries and through different regions.
Resumo:
Based on the theoretical and methodological presuppositions of the theory of language variation and change (cf. WEINREICH; LABOV; HERZOG, 2006 [1968]), it is described and analyzed in this article the process of variation/change concerning the second person possessive pronouns in letters from readers of Brazilian newspapers from the XIX and XX centuries. These letters feature a portrait of the Brazilian press from the South (Santa Catarina), Southeast (Rio de Janeiro) and Northeast (Bahia and Rio Grande do Norte) regions in each century and are part of the Project for Brazilian Portuguese History‘s (PHPB) printed common minimal corpus. The point of departure of this work is the idea that the use of variant forms of expressing second person possessive pronouns – teu and seu – results from the interaction characterizing the varied social roles performed by the letters‘ senders. Arranging communicative units, which gather elements/features denoting time and space, conditioned and determined by socio-historical and cultural aspects, the readers‘ letters, turn out to be a promising research field under the light of this paper. More specifically, In the row of presented results in studies about the pronominal system in the diachroneity of/in Brazilian Portuguese (PB) (FARACO, 2002; LORENGIAN-PENKAL, 2007; CALLOU; LOPES, 2003; LOPES; DUARTE, 2003; MENON, 2005; ARDUIN; COELHO, 2006; LOPES, 2009; MARCOTULIO, 2010), the results featured in here point at different usages of the possessives, noticing the coexistence of the forms teu/tua and seu/sua strongly conditioned by the socio-discursive nature of the readers‘ letters in the course of the centuries and through different regions.