A emergência da governança socioambiental no mercado internacional de biocombustíveis

O esgotamento das reservas de energia fóssil e o processo de mudanças climáticas causadas pelas emissões de GEEs posicionaram os biocombustíveis como a principal fonte alternativa de energia renovável disponível para uso em transportes no curto e médio prazos. Contudo, a presença de externalidades e assimetrias de informação dificultam a verificação da sustentabilidade neste setor. Assim, a emergência do mercado internacional de biocombustíveis mostra-se condicionada pela construção de instituições que garantam a sustentabilidade da produção e consumo desses produtos. O processo de construção das instituições de governança socioambiental é afetado por fatores de ordem técnica, política e institucional. Apoiado em aportes teóricos do institucionalismo econômico e sociológico, o presente estudo buscou analisar que elementos afetam este processo considerando a trajetória de mercados já estabelecidos que apresentam caraterísticas análogas ao setor de biocombustíveis (alimentos orgânicos e produtos florestais). A forma como legislações nacionais, acordos internacionais e sistemas de certificação privada se desenvolveram e interagiram nesses setores apresenta aderência com o processo de construção do mercado de biocombustíveis observado até o momento. Dentre os resultados encontrados, observa-se tendência à convergência entre padrões de sustentabilidade em diferentes legislações nacionais e sistemas de certificação privados devido às externalidades de rede que conferem maior valor a padrões adotados por uma gama mais ampla de usuários. A União Europeia desponta como o principal formador de padrões de sustentabilidade, dado seu perfil importador e o estabelecimento de critérios mais amplos nas legislações dos Estados Membros, geralmente implementada via integração de mecanismos de governança públicos e privados (meta-standards). Apesar do expressivo potencial de consumo, os EUA apresentam menor influência nesse processo devido a considerável capacidade de produção doméstica e a priorização de elementos estratégicos (segurança energética e desenvolvimento rural) no desenho de suas políticas de sustentabilidade para combustíveis de biomassa. Na esfera privada, o desenvolvimento de sistemas de certificação apresenta-se condicionado por elementos técnicos, como a eficiência em cobrir critérios relevantes e os custos incorridos neste processo; e políticos, relacionados à capacidade de legitimição dos atores envolvidos em cada um destes programas de certificação. Também se observa que caraterísticas tecnológicas e organizacionais das cadeias de produção de biocombustíveis afetam a expansão de sistemas de certificação, condicionando tanto os custos para o estabelecimento da cadeia de custódia como a capacidade de coordenação de ações setoriais visando a adoção de práticas sustentáveis que facilitem a obtenção da certificação. Essa relação fica evidente em novas nações que buscam estabelecer um setor bioenergético e enfrentam dificuldades em integrar a agricultura familiar à modelos de produção que respeitem critérios socioambientais vigentes no mercado internacional. A pesquisa revelou a necessidade de um entendimento mais aprofundado da interconexão de novas rotas tecnológicas e atores adentrando no mercado internacional de biocombustíveis. A compreensão dos riscos e potencialidades de novas formas de interação pública e privada na governança socioambiental apresenta-se como um campo prolífico para futuros estudos neste setor e em outros em que atributos ambientais se mostrem relevantes.

Sovereignty, exchange rate and the Euro crisis

This paper presents an interpretation of the European crisis based on the balance of payments imbalances within the Eurozone and highlighting the role of the “internal” real exchange rates as a primary cause of the crisis. It explores the structural contradictions that turn the Euro into a “foreign currency” for each individual Eurozone country. These contradictions imply the inability of national central banks to monetize the public and private debts, which makes the Euro crisis a sovereign crisis similar to those typical of emerging countries, but whose solution presents additional obstacles.

Labor supply, risk aversion and economic refrom in China

Economic reform in China has created a small, but fast-growing private sector that has spurred rapid productivity growth. Growth of the private sector is predicated upon continued labor movements away from state-run industries and into private firms. This paper presents a theory of labor market sectoral choice demonstrating that three factors determine private sector labor supply-the difference in wages between the state and private sectors, private sector wage risk and risk aversion. Estimation of the model using survey data provides strong support for the theory. We find that the riskiness of private sector earnings has a greater effect in discouraging workers from taking jobs in private firms than the wage premi um has in attracting workers.

Contracting with repeated moral hazard and private evaluations

A repeated moral hazard setting in which the Principal privately observes the Agent’s output is studied. It is shown that there is no loss from restricting the analysis to contracts in which the Agent is supposed to exert effort every period, receives a constant efficiency wage and no feedback until he is fired. The optimal contract for a finite horizon is characterized, and shown to require burning of resources. These are only burnt after the worst possible realization sequence and the amount is independent of both the length of the horizon and the discount factor (δ). For the infinite horizon case a family of fixed interval review contracts is characterized and shown to achieve first best as δ → 1. The optimal contract when δ << 1 is partially characterized. Incentives are optimally provided with a combination of efficiency wages and the threat of termination, which will exhibit memory over the whole history of realizations. Finally, Tournaments are shown to provide an alternative solution to the problem.

A restatement of the welafare costs of inflation. The wast of scarce resources in the manufacturing , banking and household sectors

Lucas (2000) estimates that the US welfare costs of inflation are around 1% of GDP. This measurement is consistent with a speci…c distorting channel in terms of the Bailey triangle under the demand for monetary base schedule (outside money): the displacement of resources from the production of consumption goods to the household transaction time à la Baumol. Here, we consider also several new types of distortions in the manufacturing and banking industries. Our new evidences show that both banks and firms demand special occupational employments to avoid the inflation tax. We de…ne the concept of ”the foat labor”: The occupational employments that are aflected by the in‡ation rates. More administrative workers are hired relatively to the bluecollar workers for producing consumption goods. This new phenomenon makes the manufacturing industry more roundabout. To take into account this new stylized fact and others, we redo at same time both ”The model 5: A Banking Sector -2” formulated by Lucas (1993) and ”The Competitive Banking System” proposed by Yoshino (1993). This modelling allows us to characterize better the new types of misallocations. We …nd that the maximum value of the resources wasted by the US economy happened in the years 1980-81, after the 2nd oil shock. In these years, we estimate the excess resources that are allocated for every speci…c distorting channel: i) The US commercial banks spent additional resources of around 2% of GDP; ii) For the purpose of the firm foating time were used between 2.4% and 4.1% of GDP); and iii) For the household transaction time were allocated between 3.1% and 4.5 % of GDP. The Bailey triangle under the demand for the monetary base schedule represented around 1% of GDP, which is consistent with Lucas (2000). We estimate that the US total welfare costs of in‡ation were around 10% of GDP in terms of the consumption goods foregone. The big di¤erence between our results and Lucas (2000) are mainly due to the Harberger triangle in the market for loans (inside money) which makes part of the household transaction time, of the …rm ‡oat labor and of the distortion in the banking industry. This triangle arises due to the widening interest rates spread in the presence of a distorting inflation tax and under a fractionally reserve system. The Harberger triangle can represent 80% of the total welfare costs of inflation while the remaining percentage is split almost equally between the Bailey triangle and the resources used for the bank services. Finally, we formulate several theorems in terms of the optimal nonneutral monetary policy so as to compare with the classical monetary theory.

Co-ordination failure, moral hazard and sovereign bankruptcy procedures

We study a model of sovereign debt crisis that combines problems of creditor coordination and debtor moral hazard. Solving the sovereign debtor's incentives leads to excessive 'rollover failure' by creditors when sovereign default occurs. We discuss how the incidence of crises might be reduced by international sovereign bankruptcy procedures and relate this to the current debate on revising international financial architecture. Paper prepared for Bank of England Conference on "The Role of the Official and Private Sectors in Resolving International Financial Crises", London, and for the Latin American Meeting of the Econometric Society, Sao Paolo, Brazil. (Preliminary draft circulated for comments, please do not cite without reference to the authors).

Analysis of the economic and financial relations between Latin American and the Caribbean and the BRICS group

This document has been prepared in compliance with Activity III.1.2 of the Work Programme of SELA for the year 2015, entitled “Analysis of the economic and financial relations between Latin America and the Caribbean and the BRICS countries”. The document comprises an introduction, four chapters and a final section with the conclusions and recommendations stemming from the study. Chapter I describes the economic performance of the BRICS countries, their economic relations with Latin America and the Caribbean and the functioning of the development banks of the member countries. Chapter II assesses the financial architecture of Latin America and the Caribbean and explores the needs for financing in the region. Chapter III deals with the regulatory frameworks governing public and private investments in Latin America and the Caribbean and the Bilateral Investment Treaties with the BRICS countries. Finally, Chapter IV describes the main features of the New Development Bank (NDB) and the Contingent Reserve Agreement of the BRICS