Subjective job task analyses for physically demanding occupations : what is best practice?

Workers in physically demanding occupations (PDOs) are frequently subjected to physical selection tests. To avoid legal ramifications, workplaces must be able to show that any personnel selection procedures reflect the inherent requirements of the job. A job task analysis (JTA) is fundamental in determining the work tasks required for employees. To date, there are no published instructions guiding PDO researchers on how to conduct job task analyses. Job task analysis research for non-PDOs offers some insight into the expected reliability and validity of data obtained on the most prevalent task domains in job analysis (importance, frequency, time spent and difficulty). This review critiques such research, and the existing published material on JTA of PDOs, and provides recommendations for future research and practice.

Validity and reliability of field-based measures for assessing movement skill competency in lifelong physical activities: a systematic review

Background: It has been suggested that young people should develop competence in a variety of ‘lifelong physical activities’ to ensure that they can be active across the lifespan. Objective: The primary aim of this systematic review is to report the methodological properties, validity, reliability, and test duration of field-based measures that assess movement skill competency in lifelong physical activities. A secondary aim was to clearly define those characteristics unique to lifelong physical activities. Data Sources: A search of four electronic databases (Scopus, SPORTDiscus, ProQuest, and PubMed) was conducted between June 2014 and April 2015 with no date restrictions. Study Selection: Studies addressing the validity and/or reliability of lifelong physical activity tests were reviewed. Included articles were required to assess lifelong physical activities using process-oriented measures, as well as report either one type of validity or reliability. Study Appraisal and Synthesis Methods: Assessment criteria for methodological quality were adapted from a checklist used in a previous review of sport skill outcome assessments. Results: Movement skill assessments for eight different lifelong physical activities (badminton, cycling, dance, golf, racquetball, resistance training, swimming, and tennis) in 17 studies were identified for inclusion. Methodological quality, validity, reliability, and test duration (time to assess a single participant), for each article were assessed. Moderate to excellent reliability results were found in 16 of 17 studies, with 71 % reporting inter-rater reliability and 41 % reporting intra-rater reliability. Only four studies in this review reported test–retest reliability. Ten studies reported validity results; content validity was cited in 41 % of these studies. Construct validity was reported in 24 % of studies, while criterion validity was only reported in 12 % of studies. Limitations: Numerous assessments for lifelong physical activities may exist, yet only assessments for eight lifelong physical activities were included in this review. Generalizability of results may be more applicable if more heterogeneous samples are used in future research. Conclusion: Moderate to excellent levels of inter- and intra-rater reliability were reported in the majority of studies. However, future work should look to establish test–retest reliability. Validity was less commonly reported than reliability, and further types of validity other than content validity need to be established in future research. Specifically, predictive validity of ‘lifelong physical activity’ movement skill competency is needed to support the assertion that such activities provide the foundation for a lifetime of activity.

Performance and anthropometric characteristics of prospective elite junior Australian footballers : a case study in one junior team

The aim of the study was to compare anthropometric and physical performance data of players who were selected for a Victorian elite junior U18 Australian rules football squad. Prior to the selection of the final training squad, 54 players were assessed using a battery of standard anthropometric and physical performance tests. Multivariate analysis (MANOVA) showed significant (p < 0.05) differences between selected and non-selected players when height, mass, 20-m sprint, agility and vertical jump height were considered collectively. Univariate analysis revealed that the vertical jump was the only significant (p < 0.05) individual test and a near significant trend (p = 0.07) for height differentiating between selected and non-selected players with medium effect sizes for all other tests except endurance. In this elite junior football squad, physical characteristics can be observed that discriminate between players selected and non-selected, and demonstrates the value of physical fitness testing within the talent identification process of junior (16–18 years) players for squad and/or team selection. Based on MANOVA results, the findings from this study suggest team selection appeared to be related to a generally higher performance across the range of tests. Further, age was not a confounding variable as players selected tended to be younger than those non-selected. These findings reflect the general consensus that, in state-based junior competition, there is evidence of promoting overall player development, selecting those who are generally able to fulfil a range of positions and selecting players on their potential.

Boron carbide reinforced aluminium matrix composite : physical, mechanical characterization and mathematical modelling

This paper investigates the manufacturing of aluminium-boron carbide composites using the stir casting method. Mechanical and physical properties tests to obtain hardness, ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and density are performed after solidification of specimens. The results show that hardness and tensile strength of aluminium based composite are higher than monolithic metal. Increasing the volume fraction of B4C, enhances the tensile strength and hardness of the composite; however over-loading of B4C caused particle agglomeration, rejection from molten metal and migration to slag. This phenomenon decreases the tensile strength and hardness of the aluminium based composite samples cast at 800 °C. For Al-15 vol% B4C samples, the ultimate tensile strength and Vickers hardness of the samples that were cast at 1000 °C, are the highest among all composites. To predict the mechanical properties of aluminium matrix composites, two key prediction modelling methods including Neural Network learned by Levenberg-Marquardt Algorithm (NN-LMA) and Thin Plate Spline (TPS) models are constructed based on experimental data. Although the results revealed that both mathematical models of mechanical properties of Al-B4C are reliable with a high level of accuracy, the TPS models predict the hardness and tensile strength values with less error compared to NN-LMA models.

Developing physical and physiological employment standards: translation of job analysis findings to assessments and performance standards - a systematic review

Physical employment standards (PES) are developed with the aim of ensuring that an employee's physical and physiological capacities are commensurate with the demands of their occupation. While previous commentaries and narrative reviews have provided frameworks for the development of PES, this is the first systematic review of the methods used to translate job analysis findings to PES tests and performance standards for physically demanding occupations. A search of PubMed and Google Scholar was conducted for research articles published in English up to and including March 2015. Two authors independently reviewed and extracted data.

The search yielded 87 potentially eligible papers, including 60 peer reviewed journal articles and 17 technical reports. 57 papers were excluded leading to a final data set of 31 papers, representing 22 studies. Job analysis was most commonly conducted through subjective determination of job tasks followed by objective quantification and validation. Determination of criterion tasks was evenly distributedthrough subjective and objective methods with criterion tasks being defined most commonly as most demanding, critical and/or frequent. Generic predictive and task-related predictive tests were more commonly observed in isolation or in combination when compared to task simulation tests. Performance standards were more commonly criterion-referenced than norm-referenced with a variety of statistical methods utilised. This review provides recommendations for researchers when developing physical employment standards for a variety of occupations.

Validity and relevance of the pack hike wildland firefighter work capacity test: a review

Fighting wildland fire is a physically demanding occupation. Wildland firefighters need to be physically fit to work safely and productively. To determine whether personnel are fit for duty, many firefighting agencies employ physical competency tests, such as the pack hike test (PHT). The PHT involves a 4.83-km hike over level terrain carrying a 20.4-kg pack within a 45-min period. The PHT was devised to test the job readiness of US wildland firefighters but is also currently used by some fire agencies in Australia and Canada. This review discusses the history and development of the PHT with emphasis on the process of test validation. Research-based training advice for the PHT is given, as well as discussion of the risks associated with completing the PHT. Different versions and modifications to the PHT have emerged in recent years and these are discussed with regard to their validity. Finally, this review addresses the relevance and validity of the PHT for Australian and Canadian wildland firefighters.

A haemodialysis exercise program using novel exercise equipment

This study explored whether an exercise programme for haemodialysis patients, including the use of a purpose built dialysis exercise machine, would improve quality of life (QoL), nutrition, physical function and biochemical indices. QoL, and biochemical indices were measured at 6 months and nutrition was measured at 12 months. Physical function was measured at 4, 8 and 12 months. Results showed improvement in physical function tests a decrease in serum phosphate. The QoL health and physical functioning domain improved also. Conclusions The development of a structured exercise programme can improve quality of life, physical functioning, PO4 levels and urea clearances of dialysis patients.

Predicting physiological capacity of human load carriage - a review

This review article aims to evaluate a proposed maximum acceptable work duration model for load carriage tasks. It is contended that this concept has particular relevance to physically demanding occupations such as military and firefighting. Personnel in these occupations are often required to perform very physically demanding tasks, over varying time periods, often involving load carriage. Previous research has investigated concepts related to physiological workload limits in occupational settings (e.g. industrial). Evidence suggests however, that existing (unloaded) workload guidelines are not appropriate for load carriage tasks. The utility of this model warrants further work to enable prediction of load carriage durations across a range of functional workloads for physically demanding occupations. If the maximum duration for which personnel can physiologically sustain a load carriage task could be accurately predicted, commanders and supervisors could better plan for and manage tasks to ensure operational imperatives were met whilst minimising health risks for their workers.

Oxygen uptake and heart rate during simulated wildfire suppression tasks performed by Australian rural firefighters

Objective: Australian rural fire crews safeguard the nation against the annual devastation of wildfire. We have previously reported that experienced firefighters identified seven physically demanding tasks for Australian rural fire crews suppressing wildfires. These firefighters rated the operational importance, typical duration, core fitness components, and likely frequency of the seven tasks. The intensity of these duties remains unknown. The aim of this study was to quantify the oxygen uptake (VO2), heart rate (HR) and movement speed responses during simulations of these physically demanding wildfire suppression tasks. Method: Twenty six rural firefighters (20 men, six women) performed up to seven tasks, during which time their HR and movement speed were recorded. The VO2 for each task was also calculated from the analysis of expired air collected in Douglas bags. Firefighters’ HR and movement speed were measured using HR monitors and portable global positioning system units, respectively. Results: The hose work tasks elicited a VO2 of 21-27 mL·kg-1·min-1 and peak HR of 77-87% age-predicted maximal HR (HRmax). Hand tool tasks were accompanied by VO2 of 28-34 mL·kg-1·min-1 and peak HR of 85-95%HRmax. Firefighters’ movement speed spanned 0.2 ± 0.1 to 1.8 ± 0.2 m·s-1 across the seven tasks. The cardiovascular responses in the hand tool tasks were, in most cases, higher (P<0.05) than during those elicited by the hose work tasks. Conclusions: The cardiovascular responses elicited during simulations of physically demanding wildfire suppression approximated those reported for similar tasks in urban and forestry fire fighting jurisdictions. The findings may prompt Australian rural fire agencies to consider cardiovascular disease risk screening and physical selection testing to ensure that healthy and fit firefighters are deployed to the fire ground.

Selection of roost sites by the lesser long-eared bat (Nyctophilus geoffroyi) and Gould`s wattled bat (Chalinolobus gouldii) in south-eastern Australia

Physical characteristics of roost sites used by the lesser long-eared bat Nyctophilus geoffroyi and Gould's wattled bat Chalinolobus gouldii were investigated in a farmland–remnant vegetation mosaic and adjacent forested floodplain in south-eastern Australia. A total of 45 individuals of N. geoffroyi and 27 C. gouldii were fitted with radio-transmitters, resulting in the location of 139 and 89 roosts, respectively. Male N. geoffroyi roosted in trees, fallen and decayed timber and artificial structures. These roosts were low to the ground, mainly under bark and in cracks in timber. Roosts of female N. geoffroyi were located higher above ground, and all within trees. Maternity roosts were predominantly located in large dead trees, approximately twice the diameter of roost trees used by females outside the breeding season. No maternity roosts were found under bark, despite half the roosts used by non-breeding females being located in these situations. Both sexes roosted primarily in dead timber and used cavities where the narrowest dimension of the entrance was 2.5 cm. Most roosts of C. gouldii were in dead spouts on large, live river red gum Eucalyptus camaldulensis trees. Intraspecific differences in roost characteristics were less pronounced for this species. Despite access to the same roosting opportunities, there were marked differences in roost selection between N. geoffroyi and C. gouldii. Both species favoured large diameter trees, but differed significantly for all other measured variables: type of roost structure, condition of roost tree (live or dead), height of roost tree, height of roost, and entrance dimensions. Although these species are among the most widespread bats in Australia and are often considered to be habitat 'generalists', both displayed a high level of discrimination in the roosts used. Clearly, roosting requirements are a complex and important issue in the conservation of even the most common species of bats.

Understanding environmental influences on nutrition and physical activity behaviors: where should we look and what should we count?

Research interest in the influence of environmental factors on nutrition and physical activity behaviors has surged internationally in recent years. This is evident from a rapidly expanding literature and facilitated by advances in methodological and analytical approaches to assessing multiple levels of influence on health behaviors. However, a number of conceptual challenges complicate research endeavours in this field. The purpose of this paper is to provide a 'state of the science' overview of evidence regarding environmental influences on nutrition and physical activity behaviors. We focus particularly on a number of key conceptual and methodological issues, including: a consideration of how the environment is defined; the selection and operationalization of environmental exposures; and the importance of integrating existing understanding of individual influences on behavior with the emerging data on the role of the environment. We draw on examples from the published literature including our own research studies to illustrate these issues. We conclude by proposing a research agenda to progress understanding of the influences of the environment on population nutrition and physical activity behaviors.

Nest-tree selection by the threatened brush-tailed phascogale (phascogale tapoatafa) (marsupialia: dasyuridae) in a highly fragmented agricultural landscape

The conservation of roosting and nesting resources is of critical concern for many hollow-dependent species around the world. We investigated the nest-tree requirements of the threatened brush-tailed phascogale (Phascogale tapoatafa) in a highly cleared agricultural landscape in south-eastern Australia. We documented the physical characteristics of selected nest trees and describe the spatial and temporal patterns of nest-tree use as revealed by radio-tracking. Nine phascogales (seven females, two males) were radio-tracked between March and July 1999 in an area where most woodland habitat is confined to linear strips along roads and streams or small patches and scattered trees in cleared farmland. Female phascogales were monitored for 13–35 days over periods of 5–15 weeks and two males were monitored for 2 and 9 days respectively. A total of 185 nest-tree fixes was collected and all nests occupied by phascogales were in standing trees. Eighty-three nest trees were identified, ranging in diameter at breast height (dbh) from 25 to 171 cm, with a mean dbh for the trees used by each individual phascogale of >80 cm. Phascogales did not discriminate between canopy tree species in selecting nest trees, but showed highly significant selection for trees in the largest size class. All individuals used multiple nest trees, with the seven females occupying an average of 11.4 nest trees from a mean of 25 diurnal locations. The number of nest trees continued to increase throughout the study, suggesting that more would be identified during a longer or more intensive study. Occupied nest trees were located throughout each individual’s home range, highlighting the importance of a continuous spatial distribution of suitable nest trees across the landscape. Nest trees were also located in adjacent farmland up to 225 m from roadside vegetation, demonstrating the value that scattered clumps and even single trees in farmland can have for wildlife conservation.

A physical based modeling approach for the dynamic behavior of ultrafine grained structures

This paper discusses some experimental results on the influence of grain refinement on the final mechanical properties of IF and microalloyed steels designed for auto-body components. It shows also some modeling approaches to understanding the dynamic behavior of fine-rained materials. The Zerilli–Armstrong (Z–A) and Khan–Huang–Liang (KHL) models for studied steels were implemented into FEM code in order to simulate the dynamic compression tests with different strain rates.

Discriminative ability of functional loading tests for adolescent jumper

Objective: To investigate the reliability and validity of five squat-based loading tests that are clinically appropriate for jumper's knee. The loading tests were step up, double leg squat, double leg squat on a 25-degree decline (decline squat), single leg decline squat, and decline hop. Design: Cross-sectional controlled cohort. Subjects without knee pain comprised controls, those with extensor tendon pain comprised the jumper's knee group. Setting: Institutional athlete study group in Australia. Participants: Fifty-six elite adolescent basketball players participated in this study, thirteen comprised the jumper's knee group, fifteen athletes formed a control group. Intervention: Each subject performed each loading test for baseline and reliability data on the first testing day. Subjects then performed three days of intensive (6 h daily) basketball training, after which each loading test was reexamined. Main outcome measures: Eleven point interval scale for pain. Results: The tests that best detected a change in pain due to intensive workload were the single leg decline squat and single leg decline hop. This study found that decline tests have better discriminative ability than the standard squat to detect change in jumper's knee pain due to intensive training. The typical error for these tests ranged from 0.3 to 0.5, however, caution should be exercised in the interpretation of these reliability figures due to relatively low scores. Conclusions: The single leg decline squat is recommended in the physical assessment of adolescent jumper's knee. The decline squat was selected as the best clinical test over the decline hop because it was easier to standardise performance.