A measurement framework for international entrepreneurship policy research : from impossible index to malleable matrix

The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM), a multifaceted, multinational research programme now in its seventh year of field operation, currently dominates the field of international entrepreneurship policy research but faces a crisis of credibility. Despite having created and continuing to develop a very rich database capable of addressing many of the complexities requisite for understanding entrepreneurship at the national and international levels of analysis, GEM has chosen to disguise the depths of its potential research and policy utility through a misnamed quest for unobtainable simplicity at the centre of the project and a disorganised variety of report presentations at the periphery. Subsequent to a review of the entrepreneurial definitional literature and a resolution of its many themes into six components of entrepreneurial activity, based on Penrose's (1959/1995) articulation of the practical meaning of 'entrepreneurial services', this paper suggests that a 'malleable matrix' approach can provide a practical measurement framework capable of reporting national entrepreneurial activity in a structure that is comprehensive without being overwhelming.

Policy drivers of international entrepreneurship in Europe

The diversity of countries and cultures in Europe necessitates an international outlook for most businesses. This paper examines the internationalisation of business in Europe through a literature review on international entrepreneurship theory. The role of the individual business owner and of business and interorganisational activity in facilitating the internationalisation of businesses in Europe is discussed by utilising the theoretical framework of international entrepreneurship and by putting forward three main propositions. The main aim and intent of this paper is to understand how the policies of individual governments and institutions such as the European Union help businesses in Europe to internationalise, with particular emphasis on businesses in the Baltic region. The paper discusses policy implications and suggestions for future research, which highlight the importance for firms in Europe of focussing on international markets.

Book review : International entrepreneurship in family businesses

J.C. Casillas, F.J. Acedo and A.M. Moreno (2007) International Entrepreneurship in Family Businesses, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, United Kingdom, ISBN 978 1 845428792

Internationalisation of SMEs : European comparative studies

We examine new research on the internationalisation of Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) in 27 European countries. We find that, in both established market economies and in transition economies, SME international entrepreneurship is driven by internal resources and capabilities, membership in networks or clusters, favourable government policies, economy, competitive market conditions, and industry structure. We then develop a conceptual model and propositions of the drivers of European SME internationalisation. Our findings have important implications for managers in improving their firms' international market performance.

Book review : Entrepreneurship in the creative industries : an international perspective

Colette Henry (Ed) (2007) Entrepreneurship in the Creative Industries: An International Perspective, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, United Kingdom

The risks and rewards of international construction from an Australian perspective

Very little research has been carried out regarding the risks and rewards of the international construction industry/market from an Australian perspective. A survey was sent to Australian based construction companies known to be operating internationally, to obtain their insights and perspectives on the risks and rewards of the international construction industry/market and international construction projects. Australian based companies have expanded their operations in order to benefit from inducements such as growth, profit and diversification. Continuing globalization and the openness of new markets has also provided significant opportunities to expand for Australian companies. Those Australian construction companies that have been operating abroad have been doing so for 20+ years in the Asia-Pacific and Australasian regions. This is significant as it shows that easily accessible markets are a stepping stone for further overseas expansion. The most commonly rated rewards for operating overseas were growth and profit; which matched the initial reason most companies chose to expand overseas. It was established that the ability to increase long term profitability through diversification was the biggest inducement for Australian construction companies expanding their operations overseas. When asked to rate the risks associated with international construction not one risk was rated significantly higher than the rest which supports the conclusion that the types of risks and rewards associated with each market rarely vary; only the severity and likelihood of occurrence. From an overall Australian perspective this research has established that the reasons and rewards for expanding overseas were the identical. Further that the risks associated with international construction were established as being different and varied depending on the market.

Responsible entrepreneurship in developing countries : understanding the realities and complexities

Developing countries have recently experienced a burgeoning of small-scale individual entrepreneurs (SIEs) – who range from petty traders to personal service workers like small street vendors, barbers and owners of small shops – as a result of market-based reforms, rapid urbanisation, unemployment, landlessness and poverty. While SIEs form a major part of the informal workforce in developing countries and contribute significantly to economic growth, their potential is being undermined when they engage in irresponsible and deceptive business practices such as overpricing, sale of underweight or substandard products, or attempts to hoard goods, to name a few. Despite the growing interest in corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives of small businesses in developing countries, the SIEs have received almost no attention. To address this void in the literature, we explore the reasons for the less than optimal level of social responsibility demonstrated by some SIEs in developing countries. We do so by drawing upon the existing literature to develop a comprehensive framework of social responsibility of SIEs highlighting their unique characteristics and the different contextual factors that they encounter in developing countries. Based on this framework, we then present a set of propositions specifying the influence of these contextual factors such as business environment, cultural traditions, socio-economic conditions, and both international and domestic pressures on the business practices of SIEs. The framework offers an explanation for the lack of responsible entrepreneurship of SIEs and has important implications for promoting sustainable business practices in developing countries where businesses are striving hard to survive and compete.

Blended learning in entrepreneurship education in the Asia-Pacific : a grounded theory approach to entrepreneurship pedagogy

Using a grounded theory approach, this pedagogical study explores “What are the key content areas and pedagogical interventions around which to build a blended learning method for Generation Y (also known as the Net Generation) entrepreneurship students (as opposed to other business students)?” The study uses a variety of “information-rich cases” and presents the argument that entrepreneurs learn
differently from other students. The author develops the Etappe Method of Training Entrepreneurs, a blended learning approach for the technology-savvy generation under the motto “Teaching is best done online and learning is best done in the classroom”. Drawing upon the theory of experiential learning as concretised by learning styles inventories, this learning method provides entrepreneurs, in their unique teachable moments, with active and concrete pedagogical interventions that can be enhanced through a blended learning environment of online and face-to-face modalities leading them step-by-step through deepening learning in the theory, process and practice of entrepreneurship. In conclusion, the author presents suggestions for further research that can verify this emerging theory in an empirical fashion.

Entrepreneurship and mass media : audiences' perceptions of entrepreneurship stories in mass media

Using a set ofvariables measured in the Danish population survey related to the international Global Entrepreneurship Monitor project (GEM), this study explored what influences how people perceive stories about entrepreneurship in mass media. It was found that demographics influence how people perceived entrepreneurship stores, whereas social stratifications had no influence. Further on, the findings revealed a reinforcing effect from entrepreneurship stories in mass media. People already engaged in entrepreneurship perceived media stories differently from people not engaged, and people’s existing values were also reinforced. Together, these findings provide some crucial implications for policy initiatives trying to promote entrepreneurship. First, such initiatives need to consider who the actual targets are as different people decode and perceive the same messages differently. Second, such initiatives have to be longitudinal and long termed in order to function through more influential agencies like family, peer group, school, occupational group and so forth, and not only through the mass media as secondary socialisation.