Interrelationship between anxiety, lifestyle self-reports and fitness in a sample of Hong Kong University students

Although anxiety in university students has been well documented, the influence of lifestyle and fitness status in relation to anxiety has not been investigated from a cultural perspective previously. To make recommendations regarding the avoidance or management of anxiety in this anxiety-prone cohort that are rationally based, this preliminary investigation examined the interrelationship between anxiety, lifestyle self-reports and aerobic fitness in Hong Kong Chinese University students. The State Trait Anxiety Inventory (Form Y-2) and a lifestyle questionnaire were completed by 213 students. Female students were more anxious than male students. Subjects with high anxiety reported more deleterious lifestyle behaviours including higher salt consumption and lower levels of exercise; in addition to more frequent symptoms of anxiety such as headaches and daytime somnolence. The extremes of this sample were stratified into a low anxiety group ( n =17) and a high anxiety group ( n =14) to compare their fitness status. Although both groups had below normal aerobic capacity, the higher systolic blood pressure observed for the high anxiety group is consistent with signs of anxiety, or greater deconditioning in this group or both. The results of this study have highlighted anxiety as a concern in Hong Kong University students and identified some lifestyle and fitness correlates. Understanding lifestyle and pathophysiological correlates of anxiety in Hong Kong University students that may have a cultural basis, is a crucial step toward averting or managing anxiety when these students are studying either in Hong Kong or abroad.

Variable environmental effects on a multicomponent sexually selected trait

Multicomponent signals are made up of interacting elements that generate a functional signaling unit. The interactions between signal components and their effects on individual fitness are not well understood, and the effect of environment is even less so. It is usually assumed that color patterns appear the same in all light environments and that the effects of each color are additive. Using guppies, Poecilia reticulata, we investigated the effect of water color on the interactions between components of sexually selected male coloration. Through behavioral mate choice trials in four different water colors, we estimated the attractiveness of male color patterns, using multivariate fitness estimates and overall signal contrast. Our results show that females exhibit preferences that favor groups of colors rather than individual colors independently and that each environment favors different color combinations. We found that these effects are consistent with female guppies selecting entire color patterns on the basis of overall visual contrast. This suggests that both individuals and populations inhabiting different light environments will be subject to divergent, multivariate selection. Although the appearance of color patterns changes with light environment, achromatic components change little, suggesting that these could function in species recognition or other aspects of communication that must work across environments. Consequently, we predict different phylogenetic patterns between chromatic and achromatic signals within the same clades.

Gender, age, and educational-attainment differences in Australian adults' participation in vigorous sporting and fitness activities

Background: Participation in regular vigorous physical activity could confer health benefits additional to those derived from moderate-intensity physical activities that are currently the focus of public health strategies.
Methods: Sociodemographic differences in reported participation in vigorous sporting and fitness activities over the past 2 weeks were examined using cross-sectional data from an Australian urban population sample.
Results: Participation at least once in any form of vigorous physical activity and regular participation (six or more sessions) both decreased across successive age groups and from high to low levels of education. The most frequently reported types of vigorous physical activity were cycling (13.3%), jogging (10.1%), swimming (8.4%) for men; and, swimming (8.9%), cycling (8.8%) and aerobics (8.6%) for women.
Conclusion: Rates of regular participation in vigorous activities were low. Interventions might focus on ways to encourage younger adults to engage more regularly in these activities and to maintain participation through the lifespan.

Affect-regulated indirect effects of trait anxiety and trait resilience on self-esteem

This study examined the influence of trait resilience and trait anxiety on self-esteem and investigated the mediating role of positive and negative affect in this relationship. Specifically, it was proposed that trait resilience and trait anxiety may exert indirect effects on self-esteem by promoting increased positive and negative affect, respectively. The final sample comprised of 240 participants (age, M = 21.55, SD = 4.16) who completed questionnaire measures of trait resilience (CD-RISC; Connor & Davidson, 2003), trait anxiety (STAI-T; Spielberger, Gorsuch, Lushene, Vagg, & Jacobs, 1983), affect (PANAS; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) and self-esteem (RSES; Rosenberg, 1965). Path analyses (AMOS), controlling for measurement error revealed significant indirect effects of trait anxiety and trait resilience on self-esteem via negative and positive affect. The indirect model provided a very close fit to the data; estimation of the full model (direct paths) did not yield a significantly better fit. It was concluded that the impact of trait anxiety and trait resilience on self-esteem may be due to their effects on regulating affective experiences which in turn may be more proximal predictors of individual feelings of self-worth.

A longitudinal study of body change strategies of fitness center attendees

This study evaluated predictors of strategies to change weight and muscles among men and women who attend fitness centers. A questionnaire was completed by 107 men (mean age = 39.17, SD = 13.14), and 151 women (mean age = 35.31, SD = 11.38) who regularly attended fitness centers at two points in time, one year apart. The only unique predictor of body change strategies over time for men was body dissatisfaction predicting drive for thinness; for women, body dissatisfaction predicted strategies to lose weight, drive for thinness, use of food supplements to lose weight and levels of bulimia. Media messages also predicted drive for thinness and bulimia among women. These findings would suggest that attendance body dissatisfaction is an important factor predicting other normative and health risk behaviors among fitness center attendees, particularly women at a fitness center over a 12 month period was not generally associated with adverse health risk behaviors.

Overweight and obesity from childhood to adulthood: a follow-up of participants in the 1985 Australian Schools Health and Fitness Survey

Objective: To examine overweight and obesity in Australian children followed through to adulthood.

Design and participants: A cohort study of 8498 children aged 7–15 years who participated in the 1985 Australian Schools Health and Fitness Survey; of these, 2208 men and 2363 women completed a follow-up questionnaire at age 24–34 years in 2001–2005.

Main outcome measures: Height and weight were measured in 1985, and self-reported at follow-up. The accuracy of self-reported data was checked in 1185 participants. Overweight and obesity in childhood were defined according to international standard definitions for body mass index (BMI), and, in adulthood, as a BMI of 25–29.9 and ≥ 30 kg/m2, respectively, after correcting for self-report error.

Results: In those with baseline and follow-up data, the prevalence of overweight and obesity in childhood was 8.3% and 1.5% in boys and 9.7% and 1.4% in girls, respectively. At follow-up, the prevalence was 40.1% and 13.0% in men and 19.7% and 11.7% in women. The relative risk (RR) of becoming an obese adult was significantly greater for those who had been obese as children compared with those who had been a healthy weight (RR = 4.7; 95% CI, 3.0–7.2 for boys and RR = 9.2; 95% CI, 6.9–12.3 for girls). The proportion of adult obesity attributable to childhood obesity was 6.4% in males and 12.6% in females.

Conclusion: Obesity in childhood was strongly predictive of obesity in early adulthood, but most obese young adults were a healthy weight as children.

The Ethics of Australian Fitness Professionals

The Australian fitness profession has grown rapidly in the past three decades, but there has been unequal growth in the ethical practices of its workers. The purpose of this book is to examine the ethical beliefs and behaviours of Australian fitness professionals. Several questions are of particular interest: 1) How ethical are the beliefs and behaviours of Australian fitness professionals? 2) How do the ethical beliefs and behaviours of Australian university trained fitness professionals compare with TAFE (community) college trained fitness professionals? This book explores the ethical knowledge and practices of Australian fitness professionals and compares their beliefs and behavious with practitioners from other helping professions such as psychology. Issues examined in this book include: 1) the ethics education of fitness professionals; 2) the regulation of questionable behaviours by practicing members of the fitness profession; 3) and the professional boundaries of Australian fitness workers.

Perceived sports competence mediates the relationship between childhood motor skill proficiency and adolescent physical activity and fitness : a longitudinal assessment

Background: The purpose of this paper was to investigate whether perceived sports competence mediates the relationship between childhood motor skill proficiency and subsequent adolescent physical activity and fitness.

Methods: In 2000, children's motor skill proficiency was assessed as part of a school-based physical activity intervention. In 2006/07, participants were followed up as part of the Physical Activity and Skills Study and completed assessments for perceived sports competence (Physical Self-Perception Profile), physical activity (Adolescent Physical Activity Recall Questionnaire) and cardiorespiratory fitness (Multistage Fitness Test). Structural equation modelling techniques were used to determine whether perceived sports competence mediated between childhood object control skill proficiency (composite score of kick, catch and overhand throw), and subsequent adolescent self-reported time in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness.

Results: Of 928 original intervention participants, 481 were located in 28 schools and 276 (57%) were assessed with at least one follow-up measure. Slightly more than half were female (52.4%) with a mean age of 16.4 years (range 14.2 to 18.3 yrs). Relevant assessments were completed by 250 (90.6%) students for the Physical Activity Model and 227 (82.3%) for the Fitness Model. Both hypothesised mediation models had a good fit to the observed data, with the Physical Activity Model accounting for 18% (R2 = 0.18) of physical activity variance and the Fitness Model accounting for 30% (R2 = 0.30) of fitness variance. Sex did not act as a moderator in either model.

Conclusion: Developing a high perceived sports competence through object control skill development in childhood is important for both boys and girls in determining adolescent physical activity participation and fitness. Our findings highlight the need for interventions to target and improve the perceived sports competence of youth.

Does childhood motor skill proficiency predict adolescent fitness?

Purpose: To determine whether childhood fundamental motor skill proficiency predicts subsequent adolescent cardiorespiratory fitness.

Methods: In 2000, children's proficiency in a battery of skills was assessed as part of an elementary school-based intervention. Participants were followed up during 2006/2007 as part of the Physical Activity and Skills Study, and cardiorespiratory fitness was measured using the Multistage Fitness Test. Linear regression was used to examine the relationship between childhood fundamental motor skill proficiency and adolescent cardiorespiratory fitness controlling for gender. Composite object control (kick, catch, throw) and locomotor skill (hop, side gallop, vertical jump) were constructed for analysis. A separate linear regression examined the ability of the sprint run to predict cardiorespiratory fitness.

Results: Of the 928 original intervention participants, 481 were in 28 schools, 276 (57%) of whom were assessed. Two hundred and forty-four students (88.4%) completed the fitness test. One hundred and twenty-seven were females (52.1%), 60.1% of whom were in grade 10 and 39.0% were in grade 11. As children, almost all 244 completed each motor assessments, except for the sprint run (n = 154, 55.8%). The mean composite skill score in 2000 was 17.7 (SD 5.1). In 2006/2007, the mean number of laps on the Multistage Fitness Test was 50.5 (SD 24.4). Object control proficiency in childhood, adjusting for gender (P = 0.000), was associated with adolescent cardiorespiratory fitness (P = 0.012), accounting for 26% of fitness variation.

Conclusion: Children with good object control skills are more likely to become fit adolescents. Fundamental motor skill development in childhood may be an important component of interventions aiming to promote long-term fitness.

The provision of compulsory school physical activity : associations with physical activity, fitness and overweight in childhood and twenty years later

Background
To determine whether the provision of higher levels of compulsory school physical activity is associated with higher physical activity and fitness levels and less overweight in childhood and 20 years later.

Methods
As part of the 1985 Australian Schools Health and Fitness Survey, 109 schools reported how much compulsory physical education (PE) and school sport they provided and were classified as low (<110 and <150 minutes/week for primary and secondary schools, respectively), medium (110–149 and 150–189 minutes/week for primary and secondary schools, respectively) or high (≥150 and ≥190 minutes/week for primary and secondary schools, respectively) compulsory physical activity schools by tertile cutpoints. 6,412 children reported frequency and duration of school (PE and sport) and non-school (commuting and non-organised exercise) physical activity and had height and weight measured; overweight was defined using body mass index (BMI) (m/kg²) cutpoints. 9, 12 and 15 year-olds (n = 2,595) completed a cycle ergometer fitness test (physical working capacity at heart rate 170, PWC₁₇₀). At follow-up in 2004–5, 2,346 participants kept a pedometer record, completed the International Physical Activity Questionnaire and/or a PWC₁₇₀ fitness test; and had height and weight measured (overweight = BMI≥25 m/kg²).

Results
At baseline and follow-up, median total physical activity, fitness and BMI were similar in participants who attended low, medium and high physical activity schools, and those attending high physical activity schools reported only modestly higher school physical activity. There was no difference in the prevalence of high total physical activity and fitness levels in childhood or adulthood across compulsory school physical activity categories. The prevalence of overweight in childhood and adulthood was similar across low, medium and high compulsory physical activity schools.

Conclusion
The amount of compulsory physical activity reported by schools was not associated with total physical activity, fitness or overweight in childhood or in adulthood. Policies promoting amounts of compulsory school physical activity in this range may not be sufficient to increase physical activity and fitness or reduce the prevalence of obesity in children.

A comparison of subjective and objective measures of physical activity and fitness in identifying associations with cardiometabolic risk factors

Purpose
To compare the ability of alternative measures of physical activity and fitness to quantify associations with health outcomes.

Methods
Associations between a range of subjective and objective physical activity and fitness measures and cardiometabolic risk factors were examined using data from 1,631 Australians aged 26–36 years. Anthropometry, fitness, blood pressure, and fasting blood glucose, insulin, and lipids were measured at study clinics. Participants completed the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) and 7-day pedometer diaries; they also reported sedentary behavior (sitting, television viewing).

Results
In men and women, associations were strongest for fitness, with those in the highest (vs. lowest) fitness quarter having a 75% to 80% lower prevalence of two or more primary risk factors (waist circumference, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and insulin resistance). In men, a 60% to 70% reduced prevalence of two or more risk factors was observed across extreme quarters of IPAQ leisure, IPAQ vigorous, sitting duration, and pedometer measures. Similar reductions in prevalence were observed only across extreme quarters of pedometer activity and television viewing in women.

Conclusions
Associations between alternative measures and cardiometabolic risk were relatively independent, suggesting that a range of physical activity and fitness measures may be needed to most accurately quantify associations between physical activity and health.

Does testosterone mediate the trade-off between nestling begging and growth in the canary (Serinus canaria)?

Nestling birds solicit food from their parents with vigorous begging displays, involving posturing, jostling and calling. In some species, such as canaries, begging is especially costly because it causes a trade off against nestling growth. Fitness costs of begging like this are predicted by evolutionary theory because they function to resolve conflicts of interest within the family over the provision of parental investment. However, the mechanism that links these costs with nestling behaviour remains unclear. In the present study, we determine if the relationships between nestling androgen levels, nestling begging intensities and nestling growth rates are consistent with the hypothesis that testosterone is responsible for the trade-off between begging and growth. We test this idea with a correlational study, using fecal androgens as a non-invasive method for assaying nestling androgen levels. Our results show that fecal androgen levels are positively correlated with nestling begging intensity, and reveal marked family differences in each trait. Furthermore, changes in fecal androgen levels between 5 and 8 days after hatching are positively associated with changes in nestling begging intensity, and negatively associated with nestling growth during this time. Although these correlational results support our predictions, we suggest that that experimental manipulations are now required to test the direct or indirect role of testosterone in mediating the trade-off between begging and growth.

Song and female choice for extrapair copulations in the sedge warbler, Acrocephalus schoenobaenus

Although 90% of passerine birds live in socially monogamous pair bonds, molecular studies have revealed that genetic polygamy occurs in 86% of surveyed passerines, because individuals engage in copulations outside the pair bond (extrapair copulations; EPCs). Most explanations for the occurrence of EPCs involve female gaining indirect benefits from the extrapair male. The sedge warbler is a socially monogamous species in which some offspring result from EPCs (8% in this study). Complex song is a sexually selected male trait used by females which select mates based on a variety of male qualities. We used microsatellite DNA profiling to detect extrapair young and assign paternity. ‘Good genes’ theory predicts that females should engage in EPCs with males of higher quality than their social mate, with resulting fitness benefits. Extrapair males had smaller song repertoires and smaller territories than the social mate. This apparent preference for small-repertoire males as extrapair mates conflicts with the predictions from previous studies of this species. Sudden cessation of song after pairing may mean that song cues are unavailable for later extrapair matings and females may switch to other cues. Such behaviour may lead to different patterns of female choice during social and extrapair mating in the sedge warbler. We conclude that multiple reasons underlie patterns of female choice in this species.