Fat content of chips, quality of frying fat and deep-frying practices in New Zealand fast food outlets

Objectives: To collect baseline data on the fat content of hot chips, quality (degradation) of cooking fat, deep-frying practices and related attitudes in fast food outlets in New Zealand. To identify the key determinants of the fat content of chips and quality of cooking fat. Methods: A nationally representative sample of fast food outlets (n=150, response rate 80%) was surveyed between September 1998 and March 1999. Data collected included a questionnaire, observation of cooking practices and analysis of cooked chips and frying fat. Results: Only 8% of independent operators had formal training in deep frying practices compared with 93% of chain operators. There was a wide range of fat content of chips (5%-20%, mean 11.5%). The use of thinner chips, crinkle cut chips and lower fryer fat temperature were associated with higher chip fat content. Eighty-nine per cent of chain outlets used 6–10 mm chips compared with 83% of independent outlets that used chips ≥12 mm. A wide range of frying temperatures was recorded (136–233°C) with 58% of outlets frying outside the reference range (175–190°C). As indices of fat degradation, fat acid and polar compound values above the recommended levels occurred in 54% and 5% of outlets respectively. Operators seemed willing to learn more about best practice techniques, with lack of knowledge being the main barrier to change. Conclusions and implications: Deep frying practices could be improved through operator training and certification options. Even a small decrease in the mean fat content of chips would reduce the obesogenic impact of this popular food.

Neighbourhood fast food outlets and obesity in children and adults : the CLAN study

Objective : We examined associations between density of and proximity to fast food outlets and body weight in a sample of children (137 aged 8-9 years and 243 aged 13-15 years) and their parents (322 fathers and 362 mothers).
Methods : Children's measured and parents' self-reported heights and weights were used to calculate body mass index (BMI). Locations of major fast food outlets were geocoded. Bivariate linear regression analyses examined associations between the presence of any fast food outlet within a 2 km buffer around participants' homes, fast food outlet density within the 2 km buffer, and distance to the nearest outlet and BMI. Each independent variable was also entered into separate bivariate logistic regression analyses to predict the odds of being overweight or obese.
Results : Among older children, those with at least one outlet within 2 km had lower BMI z-scores. The further that fathers lived from an outlet, the higher their BMI. Among 13-15-year-old girls and their fathers, the likelihood of overweight/obesity was reduced by 80% and 50%, respectively, if they had at least one fast food outlet within 2 km of their home. Among older girls, the likelihood of being overweight/obese was reduced by 14% with each additional outlet within 2 km. Fathers' odds of being overweight/obese increased by 13% for each additional kilometre to the nearest outlet.
Conclusions : While consumption of fast food has been shown to be associated with obesity, this study provides little support for the concept that exposure to fast food outlets in the local neighbourhood increases risk of obesity.

Children's takeaway and fast-food intakes: associations with the neighbourhood food intakes : associations with the neighbourhood food environment

Objective: The present study aimed to examine associations between availability of outlets where takeaway or fast food could be purchased and consumption of takeaway or fast food among children.

Design Cross-sectional: Parents completed a questionnaire regarding the frequency per week their child usually ate takeaway or fast foods. The availability of outlets where these foods could be purchased close to home and en route to school was determined with a Geographic Information System (presence of any outlets and density of outlets within 800 m from home and along the route to school, and distance from home to closest outlet).

Setting: Greater Melbourne and Geelong, Australia.

Subjects: Three hundred and fifty-three children aged 5–6 years and 463 children aged 10–12 years.

Results: Overall, 69·4 % of children consumed takeaway or fast foods once weekly or more often. Only one measure of availability of outlets close to home was associated with consumption; each additional outlet within 800 m was associated with 3 % lower odds of consuming takeaway or fast foods at least once weekly (OR = 0·97, 95 % CI 0·95, 1·00). There were no associations between availability en route to school and the likelihood of consuming takeaway or fast food at least once weekly.

Conclusions:  Access to outlets where takeaway or fast food could be purchased did not predict frequency of consumption of takeaway or fast food in the expected direction. Such relationships appear to be complex and may not be adequately captured by the measures of access included in the current study.

Fast food purchasing and access to fast food restaurants : a multilevel analysis of VicLANES

Background : While previous research on fast food access and purchasing has not found evidence of an association, these studies have had methodological problems including aggregation error, lack of specificity between the exposures and outcomes, and lack of adjustment for potential confounding. In this paper we attempt to address these methodological problems using data from the Victorian Lifestyle and Neighbourhood Environments Study (VicLANES) – a cross-sectional multilevel study conducted within metropolitan Melbourne, Australia in 2003.
Methods : The VicLANES data used in this analysis included 2547 participants from 49 census collector districts in metropolitan Melbourne, Australia. The outcome of interest was the total frequency of fast food purchased for consumption at home within the previous month (never, monthly and weekly) from five major fast food chains (Red Rooster, McDonalds, Kentucky Fried Chicken, Hungry Jacks and Pizza Hut). Three measures of fast food access were created: density and variety, defined as the number of fast food restaurants and the number of different fast food chains within 3 kilometres of road network distance respectively, and proximity defined as the road network distance to the closest fast food restaurant. Multilevel multinomial models were used to estimate the associations between fast food restaurant access and purchasing with never purchased as the reference category. Models were adjusted for confounders including determinants of demand (attitudes and tastes that influence food purchasing decisions) as well as individual and area socio-economic characteristics.
Results : Purchasing fast food on a monthly basis was related to the variety of fast food restaurants (odds ratio 1.13; 95% confidence interval 1.02 – 1.25) after adjusting for individual and area characteristics. Density and proximity were not found to be significant predictors of fast food purchasing after adjustment for individual socio-economic predictors.
Conclusion : Although we found an independent association between fast food purchasing and access to a wider variety of fast food restaurant, density and proximity were not significant predictors. The methods used in our study are an advance on previous analyses.

The valuation of fast-food outlets : analysis, methodology, and reliability

Fast-food outlets are a significant subsector of the hospitality and tourism property market in Australia, and have experienced significant growth and global change in the past 20 years. However, little attention has been given in professional and academic literature to the valuation methodology and analysis of these properties. This article proposes a working definition of a fast-food outlet, traces recent changes in the structure of the fast-food industry, investigates the major determinants of value with respect to asset value, and examines to what extent these have changed. In particular, it isolates the role of goodwill in assessing going-concern value.

The valuation of fast food outlets in Australia : methodology, analysis and reliability

Fast food outlets are a significant sub sector of the Hospitality and Tourism Property Market and a specialized form of business. This form of hospitality outlet has experienced significant growth and change in the last 20 years. Their value as an asset is therefore of significant interest to many involved in the tourism and hospitality industry, not least fast food operators or potential operators and their financiers. However, little attention has been given in professional and academic literature to valuation methodology, the analysis of the major components of asset value, and the underlying factors which influence asset value. As such the reliability of the valuation process could justifiably be questioned.
This paper sets out a working definition of a fast food outlet. It investigates the major determinants of value with respect to asset value and examines the accepted methods of valuation of fast food outlets in Australia as well as establishing the methods most commonly used. It clarifies the major components of asset value and examines to what extent these have changed with the changing business environment. In particular it isolates the role of Goodwill in assessing Going Concern Value. Sources of data include a comprehensive literature review and personal interviews with professionals involved in the valuation process. The paper concludes that an efficient valuation process requires that fast food outlets be considered as both a real estate and business investment. The contribution of both tangible and intangible assets to the value of the asset must be identified.

Individual and area-level socioeconomic associations with fast food purchasing

Background It has been suggested that those with lower socioeconomic characteristics would be more likely to seek energy-dense food options such as fast food because of cheaper prices; however, to date the evidence has been inconsistent. This study examines both individual- and area-level socioeconomic characteristics and their independent associations with chain-brand fast food purchasing.

Methods Data from the 2003 Victorian Lifestyle and Neighbourhood Environments Study (VicLANES); a multilevel study of 2547 adults from 49 small-areas in Melbourne, Australia, were used. Multilevel multinomial models adjusted for confounders were used to assess associations between individual socioeconomic position (education, occupation and income) and area socioeconomic characteristics in relation to fast food purchasing from five major fast food chains with outcome categories: never, at least monthly and at least weekly. The study finally assessed whether any potential area-level associations were mediated by fast food access.

Results Increased fast food purchasing was independently associated with lower education, being a blue-collar employee and decreased household income. Results for area-level disadvantage were marginally insignificant after adjustment for individual-level characteristics, although they were suggestive that living in an area with greater levels of disadvantage increased an individual's odds of more frequent fast food purchasing. This effect was further attenuated when measures of fast food restaurant access were included in the models.

Conclusion Independent effects of lower individual-level socioeconomic characteristics and more frequent fast food purchasing for home consumption are demonstrated. Although evidence was suggestive of an independent association with area-level disadvantage this did not reach statistical significance.

Fast food restaurant locations : could they be 'supersizing' local communities?

This review examines the current state of knowledge related to the location of fast food restaurants. Previous studies have revealed some communities are more exposed to fast food restaurants. However, the influence of increased exposure to fast food on dietary behaviours remains unresolved. This is identified as an area of priority for future research.

Association between fast food purchasing and the local food environment

Objective: In this study, an instrument was created to measure the healthy and unhealthy characteristics of food environments and investigate associations between the whole of the food environment and fast food consumption.

Design and subjects: In consultation with other academic researchers in this field, food stores were categorised to either healthy or unhealthy and weighted (between +10 and −10) by their likely contribution to healthy/unhealthy eating practices. A healthy and unhealthy food environment score (FES) was created using these weightings. Using a cross-sectional study design, multilevel multinomial regression was used to estimate the effects of the whole food environment on the fast food purchasing habits of 2547 individuals.

Results: Respondents in areas with the highest tertile of the healthy FES had a lower likelihood of purchasing fast food both infrequently and frequently compared with respondents who never purchased, however only infrequent purchasing remained significant when simultaneously modelled with the unhealthy FES (odds ratio (OR) 0.52; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.32–0.83). Although a lower likelihood of frequent fast food purchasing was also associated with living in the highest tertile of the unhealthy FES, no association remained once the healthy FES was included in the models. In our binary models, respondents living in areas with a higher unhealthy FES than healthy FES were more likely to purchase fast food infrequently (OR 1.35; 95% CI 1.00–1.82) however no association was found for frequent purchasing.

Conclusion: Our study provides some evidence to suggest that healthier food environments may discourage fast food purchasing.

Barriers to avoiding fast-food consumption in an environment supportive of unhealthy eating

Objective
To investigate factors (ability, motivation and the environment) that act as barriers to limiting fast-food consumption in women who live in an environment that is supportive of poor eating habits.

Design
Cross-sectional study using self-reports of individual-level data and objectively measured environmental data. Multilevel logistic regression was used to assess factors associated with frequency of fast-food consumption.

Setting
Socio-economically disadvantaged areas in metropolitan Melbourne, Australia.

Subjects
Women (n 932) from thirty-two socio-economically disadvantaged neighbourhoods living within 3 km of six or more fast-food restaurants. Women were randomly sampled in 2007–2008 as part of baseline data collection for the Resilience for Eating and Activity Despite Inequality (READI) study.

Results
Consuming low amounts of fast food was less likely in women with lower perceived ability to shop for and cook healthy foods, lower frequency of family dining, lower family support for healthy eating, more women acquaintances who eat fast food regularly and who lived further from the nearest supermarket. When modelled with the other significant factors, a lower perceived shopping ability, mid levels of family support and living further from the nearest supermarket remained significant. Among those who did not perceive fruits and vegetables to be of high quality, less frequent fast-food consumption was further reduced for those with the lowest confidence in their shopping ability.

Conclusions
Interventions designed to improve women's ability and opportunities to shop for healthy foods may be of value in making those who live in high-risk environments better able to eat healthily.

Fast food restaurant locations according to socioeconomic disadvantage, urban-regional locality, and schools within Victoria, Australia

Features of the built environment provide opportunities to engage in both healthy and unhealthy behaviours. Access to a high number of fast food restaurants may encourage greater consumption of fast food products. The distribution of fast food restaurants at a state-level has not previously been reported in Australia. Using the location of 537 fast food restaurants from four major chains (McDonald[U+05F3]s, KFC, Hungry Jacks, and Red Rooster), this study examined fast food restaurant locations across the state of Victoria relative to area-level disadvantage, urban-regional locality (classified as Major Cities, Inner Regional, or Outer Regional), and around schools. Findings revealed greater locational access to fast food restaurants in more socioeconomically disadvantaged areas (compared to areas with lower levels of disadvantage), nearby to secondary schools (compared to primary schools), and nearby to primary and secondary schools within the most disadvantaged areas of the major city region (compared to primary and secondary schools in areas with lower levels of disadvantage). Adjusted models showed no significant difference in location according to urban-regional locality. Knowledge of the distribution of fast food restaurants in Australia will assist local authorities to target potential policy mechanisms, such as planning regulations, where they are most needed.

Special sauce in sesame seed buns: legal strategy and public policy in the fast-food industry

Lewis Bertly, a top lawyer with leading London law firm LL&B, is retained to defend a case with the potential to change the laws that affect fast-food marketing. Through its Department of Health, the Government of Australia seeks legislation for warning labels on fast-food packaging. To prepare a potential defense against this legal action for McDonald's Bertly is reviewing the history of legal action against the industry in fast-food labeling, nutrition and health. This history is important because the industry's actions through the decades in food nutrition and marketing are likely to be raised as evidence. He also hopes this will help him find a framework to map the way social expectations, a company's innovation, the legal system, and legislation combine to shape an industry. What he learns from this history and especially about the market leader, McDonald's, will inform how the defense approaches this case.