Comparison of the work of psychologists in rural and urban settings : implications for professional training

To compare the work practices and training needs of rural and urban psychologists, 774 surveys were sent to psychologists throughout Australia. The psychologists were selected from the Australian Psychological Society (APS) Directory of Psychologists, 1992- 1993. A total of 86 rural psychologists and 282 urban psychologists responded to the survey. The survey comprised of four sections with questions asking respondents their demographic and employment background, past and current training activities, work experience, and relations with community. Results showed that the decision to practice and remain in a rural area was influenced by psychologists’ childhood experience and professional training in a rural setting, A substantial proportion of rural psychologists (28%) had been working in rural practice for five years or less. These rural psychologists were identified as a group that had a demographic and training profile more similar to urban psychologists than their rural colleagues. The employment conditions and training background of rural and urban psychologists were similar, though rural psychologists were more likely to be working in private practice and have undertaken their studies in a rural setting. Rural and urban psychologists rated their undergraduate and postgraduate training in psychology as only somewhat adequate. Training in rural health and community issues received the lowest ratings from both groups of psychologists. The work practices of rural and urban psychologists were also similar. There were some differences in the demographic profile of the client groups seen by the two groups. Rural psychologists reported the type of relations with their communities that are conducive to rural practice. The main evidence of this was that rural psychologists were collaborating with the natural helpers of their communities, and expressed willingness to formally train natural helpers to assist in the provision of psychological services. There were several conclusions drawn from this study. The first conclusion was that rural psychologists with urban demographic and training backgrounds are a group that is likely to migrate from rural practice to urban practice, Secondly, training needs to be specialised for rural practice if there is to be an improvement in the number of psychologists practicing in rural settings. Thirdly, rural psychologists were conducting the type of relations with their communities that are important to the requirements of rural practice.

Early childhood teachers' perspectives on and experience of multicultural education

The multicultural nature of early childhood services in New Zealand is highlighted by the statistical reality that 22 percent of children are Māori, 7 percent are Pasifika, and 11 percent are Asian and other non-European/Pākehā ethnicities. Multicultural early childhood education has become a vital practice underpinning educational reforms. This is evident in a range of government initiatives including, for example, building partnerships with whānau Māori to improve Māori success in education, introducing equity funding to reduce educational disparities between different community groups, and developing a Pasifika Education Plan that improves Pasifika children’s educational achievement. In this article, multicultural education is examined, considering early childhood teachers’ perspectives and experiences through the lens of Sleeter and Grant’s five approaches to multicultural education. The findings suggest that the teachers’ focus on children, culture, and community building drives their endeavours, and indicate that the use of a social reconstructionist approach has the potential to lead to transformative changes to multicultural education.

The Relationship of Childhood Family Characteristics and Current Attachment Styles to Depression and Depressive Vulnerability

The role of adult romantic attachment style in the relationship between childhood experiences and current depression was examined. Childhood maltreatment, parental separation/divorce, family adaptability and cohesion during childhood, current attachment style in romantic relationships, vulnerability to depression, and current depressive symptoms were measured in a self-selected sample of adults (N = 133). A large degree of overlap was found in the experience of different types of maltreatment during childhood. Depressive symptoms were uniquely predicted by the sexual abuse and neglect scales, with significant additional variance explained after entering the degree to which respondents' current romantic attachment style was “secure”. Maltreatment and family dysfunction in childhood were significant predictors of depression and vulnerability to depression. Although maltreatment scores did not differentiate between different attachment styles, the degree to which respondents were securely attached may explain -in part -the association between early childhood environment and depressive symptoms in adulthood.

Fracturing the façade : exploring the impact of childhood sexual abuse

Examination of previous empirical literature illustrates how researchers have concentrated on documenting the impact of childhood sexual abuse (CSA) on the later psychological functioning of survivors, through comparisons with those who have not had such a history. Only more recently has there been a focus on assessing the relationship between aspects of the abuse and specific psychological difficulties. This thesis investigated the relationships between CSA characteristics and women’s later psychological adjustment. The role of attributions, coping methods, parenting competency and marital satisfaction were also investigated. Qualitative data on perception of benefit and general reflections of participants were used to explore participants’ self-esteem, locus of control, decisions relating to parenting, disclosure experiences, and attributions in relation to their abuse, including the search for meaning. Recruitment through newspapers and counselling services led to 118 women volunteering to complete a questionnaire evaluating the characteristics of their CSA and their current psychological adjustment. Of this group, 33 subsequently volunteered to participate in a telephone interview that explored in greater depth issues related to the long-term impact of their CSA. Both quantitative and qualitative analyses were conducted on the data. The women reported a high prevalence of dysfunction in their families of origin. Abuse had generally commenced by middle childhood, and lasted for a number of years and often involved a number of perpetrators. Perpetrators were most likely to be intrafamilial, with stepfathers being over-represented. Sexual activities generally involved physical contact, with participation often induced by the use of coercion. Participants demonstrated significant difficulties in psychological adjustment, but attributions regarding the abuse improved over time. Some concerns were expressed regarding parenting competency, and avoidant coping methods were favoured. In general, participants were satisfied with their current marital relationship. Significant associations were found between coping methods, attributional style, beliefs and various psychological adjustment measures. Participants, in general, demonstrated low self-esteem and displayed an external locus of control. As a consequence of their experience of CSA, many participants reported they had decided not to have children. For those who did have children, CSA was almost universally seen as having had an impact on their parenting. Disclosure of CSA was usually delayed for a number of years, with poor outcomes generally resulting from disclosure when it occurred. Women with current partners rated them as very caring and not controlling. Participants were generally still searching for meaning in their abuse, despite many having accepted it. Survivors outlined an extensive range of long-term effects of CSA, and nominated a number of strategies that would assist in reducing these effects. The results of the study indicated that there are a number of characteristics associated with CSA which signal a higher risk of difficulties in psychological adjustment. Concerns of survivors regarding parenting were confirmed according to those who undertook this role. Unfortunately, concerns expressed by survivors that disclosure of their CSA would have had negative consequences was usually the case when they did finally disclose. However, the accessing of social and family support appeared to have an important role in changing the attributions of survivors regarding their CSA. Furthermore, change of attributions in relation to abuse may provide the key to resilience in survivors against the negative impact of CSA on later psychological adjustment.

Heightened sour preferences during childhood

Basic research has revealed that the chemical sensory world of children is different from that of adults, as evidenced by their heightened preferences for sweet and salty tastes. However, little is known about the ontogeny of sour taste preferences, despite the growing market of extreme sour candies. The present study investigated whether the level of sourness most preferred in a food matrix and the ability to discriminate differences in sour intensity differed between 5- to 9-year-old children and their mothers, by using a rank-by-elimination procedure embedded in the context of a game. Mothers also completed a variety of questionnaires and children were asked several questions to assess whether children's temperament and food preferences and habits related to sour preferences. The results indicated that, although every mother and all but two of the children (92%) were able to rank the gelatins from most to least sour, more than one-third (35%) of the children, but virtually none of the adults, preferred the high levels of sour taste (0.25 M citric acid) in gelatin. Those children who preferred the extreme sour tastes were significantly less food neophobic (P < 0.05) and tended to experience a greater variety of fruits when compared with the remaining children (P = 0.11). Moreover, the children's preference for sour tastes generalized to other foods, such as candies and lemons, as reported by both children and mothers. These findings are the first experimental evidence to demonstrate that sour taste preferences are heightened during childhood and that such preferences are related to children's food habits and preferences. Further research is needed to unfold the relationship between the level of sour taste preferred and the actual consumption of sour-tasting foods and flavors in children.

Sweet and sour preferences during childhood : role of early experiences

We investigated the effects of early experience on sweet and sour preferences in children. Eighty-three children were divided into four groups based on the type of formula fed during infancy and age. By using a forced-choice, sip-and-swallow procedure, we determined the level of sweetness and sourness preferred in juice. Children who were fed protein hydrolysate formulas, which have a distinctive sour and bitter taste and unpleasant odor, preferred higher levels of citric acid in juice when compared to older children who were fed similar formulas. No such difference was observed between the groups for sweet preference. However, the level of sweetness preferred in juice was related to the sugar content of the child's favorite cereal and whether the mother routinely added sugar to their foods. These data illustrate the wide variety of experiential factors that can influence flavor preferences during childhood.

Evaluation of an early intervention program for childhood conduct problems

Treatment outcomes of an early intervention program for childhood conduct problems were evaluated. Results provided support for the longitudinal effectiveness of the program in reducing conduct problems, social difficulties, and psychosocial impairment for young primary school aged children. Children's experience and expression of anger also reduced across the program's duration. The portfolio presents four case studies whose results provide further support for Exposure and Response Prevention (ERP) as an effective and clinically useful treatment for paediatric OCD in everyday clinical contexts.

A content analysis of early childhood teachers’ theoretical and practical experiences with infants and toddlers in Australian teacher education programs

 In Australia, the growth in the provision of early childhood services for very young children aged birth to three years has placed increased demands on pre-service teachers as new policy stipulates the need for qualified early childhood teachers. While many teacher education programs offer early childhood courses, they have traditionally had a greater focus on kindergarten and the formal years of schooling. Less is known about the amount of time devoted to developing the specialist educational capacity for teaching and caring for infants and toddlers. This paper explores 55 Australian early childhood teacher undergraduate education programs to provide data regarding what pre-service teachers learn about children from birth to three years of age during their formal program of study. It explores: if pre-service teachers engage in practical experiences with this age range; what content they learn; and how knowledge for this age range is assessed. Utilising information from fully accessible public program websites, data in the form of course details were examined to reveal the extent and nature of courses inclusive of teaching and learning focusing on children aged from birth to three years. Of the 55 programs, 18 programs provided practical experience with infants and toddlers, and to a lesser extent content was evident and assessed. Most of the programs which included a focus on birth to three years of age were delivered by Victorian institutions. Findings are important for the future of early childhood teacher education in Australia and hold key messages for teacher registration bodies.

How do early childhood teachers understand and support the needs of young English language Learners

In Australia, over one third of all children in Early Childhood programs speak a first language other than English. Despite considerable work into teachers' beliefs on cultural diversity, attention to aspects of second language acquisition in the Early Years has been limited within the Early Childhood field. This paper reports on a small study investigating how four early childhood educators understand theory of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) and bilingualism, and how they cater for language-minority students in their programs. The findings revealed a complex interplay between the way participants interpret and support the needs of these children, their experience in the field, and professional education. The teachers in the study reveal various perspectives on how SLA and bilingualism manifest during the early years, and how they affect the learning of children with a Language Background other than English (LBOTE). The teachers also seemed to rely on experiential and intuitive approaches in planning and teaching English Language Learners (ELLs). This study brings new perspectives to understanding the nature of teachers' beliefs and practice regarding English language learners.

Experience of racism and tooth brushing among pregnant Aboriginal Australians: exploring psychosocial mediators

Despite burgeoning evidence regarding the pathways by which experiences of racism influence health outcomes, little attention has been paid to the relationship between racism and oral health-related behaviours in particular. We hypothesised that self-reported racism was associated with tooth brushing, and that this association was mediated by perceived stress and sense of control and moderated by social support.

Improving Indigenous Access to Early Childhood Services in Urban and Regional Areas

The literature on how to improve Indigenous access to early childhood services consists mainly of program descriptions and documented practice experience, with a limited number of formal program evaluations. Accessible early childhood services fulfil four overlapping dimensions. They are physically accessible; economically accessible (affordable); appropriate (comprehensive and non-discriminatory); and acceptable (respect and acknowledge culture).The literature suggests that there are five types of barriers to accessible early childhood services: individual; program; provider; social and neighbourhood; and cultural.It is not sufficient to just improve access—engagement strategies are also necessary to get families involved in the services that may benefit them.

The lifetime experience of traumatic events is associated with hair cortisol concentrations in community-based children

Adversity early in life can disrupt the functioning of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPAA) and increase risk for negative health outcomes. Recent research suggests that cortisol in scalp hair represents a promising of HPAA function. However, little is known about the relationship between early exposure to traumatic events and hair cortisol concentrations (HCC) in childhood, a critical period of HPAA development. The current study measured HCC in scalp hair samples collected from 70 community-based children (14 males, mean age = 9.50) participating in the Imaging Brain Development in the Childhood to Adolescence Transition Study (iCATS). Data were also collected on lifetime exposure to traumatic events and current depressive symptoms. Lifetime exposure to trauma was associated with elevated HCC; however, HCC was not associated with current depressive symptoms. Consistent with some prior work, males were found to have higher HCC than females, although results should be treated with caution due to the small number of males who took part. Our findings suggest that hair cortisol may represent a biomarker of exposure to trauma in this age group; however, further study is necessary with a particular focus on the characterization of trauma and other forms of adversity.

Childhood cancer in Argentina: survival 2000–2007

 Introduction: Information on the epidemiology of childhood cancer in Latin America is limited. The Argentinean Oncopaediatric Registry (ROHA) is a population-based registry active since 2000. This paper describes the 3-year survival experience of children diagnosed with cancer in Argentina during 2000–2007 by major morphological subgroup, age, sex, and geographical region of residence.
Methods: Newly diagnosed paediatric cancer cases are registered in ROHA (estimated coverage is 93% of the country’s cases). Three-year overall survival was estimated using Kaplan–Meier methods. Univariate Cox models were used to compare subgroup survival.
Results: Between 2000 and 2007, a total of 10,181 new cancer diagnoses in children aged 0–14 years were reported to the registry. Three-year overall survival (95%CI) for all cancers was 61.7% (60.7; 62.7). Specific survival for the most frequent morphological types was: leukaemias 63.3% (61.6; 64.9), lymphomas and related neoplasms 75.3% (72.7; 77.7), brain neoplasms 46.3% (43.9; 48.7), soft-tissue sarcomas 52.3% (48.0; 56.5), neuroblastomas 49.6% (44.6; 54.3), renal tumours 76.7% (72.2; 80.6), and malignant bone tumours 47.2% (42.3; 51.9). Overall survival was associated with age but not sex and varied by geographical region. Compared to other regions, patients who resided in the capital city had a significantly higher survival: 69.6% (65.8; 73.0) versus 63.5% (59.4; 67.4) in Patagonia, 63.2% (61.9; 64.5) in the central region, 58.0% (54.2; 61.7) in Cuyo, 55.6% (52.5; 58.6) in the north-east, and 55.4% (52.4; 58.2) in the north-west (all P values <0.005).
Conclusions: Of children diagnosed with cancer in Argentina, 62% survived at least 3 years after diagnosis. Even though this figure is lower than that reported for more developed countries, survival patterns by diagnosis, age and sex were quite similar. Survival was lower in the two northern regions, which are areas with higher poverty levels.

Childhood mental and developmental disorders

Childhood mental and developmental disordersencompass neurodevelopmental, emotional, and behavioraldisorders that have broad and serious adverseimpacts on psychological and social well-being. Childrenwith these disorders require significant additional supportfrom families and educational systems; the disordersfrequently persist into adulthood (Nevo and Manassis2009; Polanczyk and Rohde 2007; Shaw and others 2012).These children are more likely to experience a compromiseddevelopmental trajectory, with increased need formedical and disability services, as well as increased riskof contact with law enforcement agencies (Fergusson,Horwood, and Lynskey 1993).