Student satisfaction : impact of age and gender on satisfaction among international postgraduate students from Asia

Customer satisfaction is a core-marketing concept. It is considered as a major outcome of marketing activity and serves to link processes, culminating in purchase and consumption with post-purchase phenomena such as attitudinal change, customer retention, repeat purchase, brand loyalty, positive word-of-mouth communication. Student satisfaction is a strategic factor in developing a competitive advantage in the highly attractive and globally competitive international education market. Market forecasts indicate a seven-fold increase in the number of students seeking higher education overseas by 2025 and given the competitiveness of the industry, universities will need to focus on variables influencing student satisfaction in order to address areas where improvements in service quality are required.

A sample of 371 postgraduate students from China, India, Indonesia and Thailand, is investigated. The study highlights the development of a scale to measure international postgraduate student satisfaction. The scale demonstrates the importance of four predominant factors influencing university choices - Education Resources; Communication and Guidance; Customer Value and Study Outcomes; and Image, Prestige and Recognition. Using logistic regression and chi square testing, this paper investigates the impact of age and gender on satisfaction among international postgraduate students from four Asian countries studying in universities in Victoria, Australia, on theses factors. The results indicate that age has a positive relationship with satisfaction among postgraduate students while the influence of gender has no effect on influencing satisfaction among postgraduate students from Asia.

Student learning orientations : are there differences between age and gender?

The increasing diversity and mobility of students have challenged universities, world over, to review educational courses and delivery to provide a more satisfying learning environment to students. The continuous improvement of the 'quality' of teaching and learning is one of the key goals of universities endeavouring to fulfil their obligations as learning institutions. Using a revised SPQ2F instrument (Biggs, 2003, Biggs and Leung, 2001), this exploratory study undertakes a comparative analysis of the age and gender differences in the learning orientations of two groups of tertiary students in an Australian University. The results indicate that there are no significant differences in the learning orientations of students but on average they seem to demonstrate deep learning than surface learning although they may differ in terms of the learning contexts.

How do school day activity patterns differ with age and gender across adolescence?

Purpose
A knowledge of how young people use their time could be instrumental in informing health interventions, modeling consumer behaviors, and planning service delivery. The aim of the present study was to describe age- and gender-related patterns in the self-reported use of time on school days in a large sample of Australian children and adolescents aged between 10 and 18 years.

Methods
A single, detailed use-of-time diary for a school day was collected from 6024 Australians aged 10–18 from several state and regional surveys conducted in the states of South Australia (SA) and Victoria between 2001 and 2006. Time–use profiles were analyzed for a range of active and sedentary state behaviors.

Results
Boys reported higher physical activity levels (PALs), moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), and sports than girls. There were no differences in free play, and girls used more active transport. All activity-related variables decreased with age, except active transport, which peaked at 14–15 years. Boys exhibited higher levels of screen time, whereas girls had higher levels of passive transport. Screen time and its components (television, videogames, and computer use) peaked in the peripubertal years.

Conclusion
Age- and gender-related patterns of time use vary greatly within adolescence. This may reflect a mix of biological and social factors.

Body image and self-esteem across age and gender : a short-term longitudinal study

This study examined the relationship between body image and self-esteem across time and age for men and women. Participants were 150 men and 239 women aged between 20 and 86 years (M=59.73), recruited from the general population in Australia. They completed a questionnaire assessing self-esteem, body dissatisfaction, body importance, and a range of other domains of life satisfaction at baseline and 2 years later. Cross-sectionally, we found that higher self-esteem was associated with lower body dissatisfaction, but there was no consistent relationship between these variables across time for age and
gender. Women were more dissatisfied with their bodies than men; yet, men placed greater importance on their appearance than women, and also reported high levels of body dissatisfaction.

Age- and gender-specific rate of fractures in Australia : a population-based study

There is little population-based data concerning fracture rates in Australia. We ascertained all fractures occurring during 2 years in adults aged 35 years and over residing within a defined region (population 218 000), representative of the Australian population. The major strength of this study is the comprehensive ascertainment of fractures, which was ensured by regular searches of the only two radiologic providers in the Geelong Osteoporosis Study region. Nevertheless, vertebral fractures are likely to be underestimated since our ascertainment relied on a clinical indication for a medical imaging procedure. Among those aged 35 – 55 years, the fracture rate (persons per 10 000/year) in men was about double the rate in women (65 vs 35). The fracture rate was almost 7 times higher in women over 60 years versus women less than 55 years of age. In contrast, the fracture rate in men over 60 years was only 50% higher than in men less than 55 years of age (72 vs 104). Fracture rates in women and men were highest at the hip (28 and 10 respectively), spine (21 and 7), distal forearm (Colles’) (18 and 4) and humerus (11 and 3), and were 3–4 times higher in women than men. These fractures accounted for 63% of all fractures in women and 32% in men. By contrast, the rate of lower leg and ankle fractures was less than 10 per 10 000 in both women and men and did not increase to the same extent with age. Hip fracture rates appear high, particularly among the older age strata, compared with retrospective ascertainment in other populations. In Australia, as in many other countries, there is an increasing longevity of the population. The number of women aged 90 years and over increased by 32% and the number of men of this age increased by 48% in the 5 years between the Australian national census of 1991 and 1996. Given stable fracture rates, the substantial health burden imposed by age-related fractures, particularly hip fractures, will continue to escalate in both women and men.

Influence of age and gender on fat mass, fat-free mass and skeletal muscle mass among Australian adults: the Australian diabetes, obesity and lifestyle study (AUSDIAB)

Background
Bioelectrical impedance (BIA) represents a simple, inexpensive and non-invasive method that is often used to assess fat-mass (FM) and fat-free mass (FFM) in large population-based cohorts.

Objective
The aim of this study was to describe the reference ranges and examine the influence of age and gender on FM, FFM and skeletal muscle mass (SMM) as well as height-adjusted estimates of FM [fat mass index (FMI)], FFM [fat-free mass index (FFMI)] and SMM [SMM index (SMI)] in a national, population-based cohort of Australian adults.

Design and Participants
The analytical sample included a total of 8,582 adults aged 25–91 years of Europid origin with complete data involved in the cross-sectional 1999–2000 Australian, Diabetes, Obesity and Lifestyle (AusDiab) Study.

Measurements
Bioelectrical impedance analysis was used to examine components of body composition. Demographic information was derived from a household interview.

Results
For both genders, FFM, SMM and SMI decreased linearly from the age of 25 years, with the exception that in men SMI was not related to age and FFM peaked at age 38 years before declining thereafter. The relative loss from peak values to ≥75 years in FFM (6–8%) and SMM (11–15%) was similar between men and women. For FM and FMI, there was a curvilinear relationship with age in both genders, but peak values were detected 6–7 years later in women with a similar relative loss thereafter. For FFMI there was no change with age in men and a modest increase in women.

Conclusion
In Australian adults there is heterogeneity in the age of onset, pattern and magnitude of changes in the different measures of muscle and fat mass derived from BIA, but overall the agerelated losses were similar between men and women.

Age and gender differences in the influence of social support on mental health : a longitudinal fixed-effects analysis using 13 annual waves of the HILDA cohort

OBJECTIVES: Perceived social support is associated with better mental health. There has been limited attention to how these relationships are modified by age and gender. We assessed this topic using 13 years of cohort data. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. METHODS: The outcome was the Mental Health Inventory-5 (MHI-5), a reliable and valid screening instrument for mood disorders. The main exposure was a social support scale composed of 10 items. We used longitudinal fixed-effects regression modelling to investigate within-person changes in mental health. Analytic models controlled for within-person sources of bias. We controlled for time-related factors by including them into regression modelling. RESULTS: The provision of higher levels of social support was associated with greater improvements in mental health for people aged under 30 years than for older age groups. The mental health of females appeared to benefit slightly more from higher levels of social support than males. Improvements in the MHI-5 were on a scale that could be considered clinically significant. CONCLUSIONS: The benefits of social support for young people may be connected to age-related transitions in self-identity and peer friendship networks. Results for females may reflect their tendency to place greater emphasis on social networks than males.

The measurement of socio-economic status: investigation of gender-and age-specific indicators in Australia: national health survey 1995

Objective: To investigate thecorrelations between age- and gender-specificmeasures of socio-economic status versus healthstatus as measured by the SF-36.

Design: Population based study.

Participants: 38187 people aged between18 to 79 years who participated in the NationalHealth Survey in 1995.

Results: Factor analysis producedconsistent results that were interpreted interms of five conceptually meaningful domains(employment, housing, migration, family unitand education). The relative rank of thefactors differs between groups and in somecases factor composition requires items to beadded or deleted from the conceptual domains.

Conclusions: Age- and gender-specific SESscores based on these factors had strongerassociations with the physical and mentalcomponents of SF-36 than either an area basedindex or scores derived from males aged 40–44years. Overall the results supported thehypothesis that SES measures composed of socialand demographic items exhibit important age-and gender-specific differences which arerelevant for health.

Consumption of foods by young children with diagnosed campylobacter infection : a pilot case-control study

Objective: To determine whether parentally reported habitual intake of specific foods differed between children with diagnosed Campylobacter jejuni infection and children of a comparison group without diagnosed infection.

Design, setting and subjects: Information was collected from the parents or primary caregivers of South Australian children aged 1–5 years with diagnosed C. jejuni (cases, n=172) and an age- and gender-matched group of uninfected children (controls, n=173). Frequency of consumption of 106 food and drink items was determined for the preceding two months by food-frequency questionnaire. Four children in the control group had recorded diarrhoeal episodes during the assessment period and were excluded, so 169 responses were evaluated for this group. Information was gathered on possible confounders including socio-economic status. Response frequencies were classified into three levels of consumption (rarely, weekly or daily) and statistical comparison was made by frequency of consumption of foods versus the ‘rarely’ classification for cases and controls, respectively.

Results: Frequency of consumption of most foods, including starchy foods and fruits and vegetables, did not differ between cases and controls. However, reported consumption of eight food items (block and processed cheese (slices and spread), salami/fritz (a form of processed sausage), chicken nuggets, pasteurised milk, fish (canned or fresh) and hot French fries) was significantly higher by controls.

Conclusions: The hypothesis that reported consumption of starchy foods was lower by cases than by controls was not supported by the data. However, consumption of some processed and unprocessed foods was higher by controls. Some of these foods have established bactericidal actions in vitro that may indicate a possible mechanism for this apparent protection.

Gender specific age-related changes in bone density, muscle strength and functional performance in the elderly: a-10 year prospective population-based study

Background: 

Perioperative mortality rates in Australian public hospitals : the influence of age, gender and urgency

INTRODUCTION: A decline in surgical deaths has been observed in Australia since the introduction of the Australian and New Zealand Audit of Surgical Mortality (ANZASM). The current study was conducted to determine whether the perioperative mortality rate (POMR) has also declined. METHODS: This study is a retrospective review of the POMR for surgical procedures in Australian public hospitals between July 2009 and June 2013, using data obtained from the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Operative procedures contained in the Australian Refined Diagnosis Related Groups were selected and the POMR was modelled using urgency of admission, age and gender as explanatory covariates. RESULTS: The POMR in Australian public hospitals reduced by 15.4 % over the 4-year period. The emergency admissions POMR dropped from 1.40 to 1.12 %, and the elective admissions POMR from 0.09 to 0.08 %. The binary logistic regression model used to predict patient mortality showed emergency admissions to have a higher POMR than elective, being more evident at older ages. For emergency admissions, the difference in POMR between females and males increased with age, from about 55 years onwards, with females being lower. For elective surgeries, the difference between males and females was of little practical importance across ages. CONCLUSIONS: The reduction in the POMR in Australia confirms the reduction in surgical deaths reported to ANZASM. Continuing to monitor POMR will be important to ensure the safest surgery in Australia. Further investigations into case-mix will allow better risk adjustment and comparison between regions and time-periods, to facilitate continuous quality improvement.

The relationship between divorce and the psychological well‐being of children with ADHD: differences in age, gender, and subtype

It is generally accepted that Attention‐Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) results from a dysfunction of the central nervous system, which has led to a commonly held belief that environmental factors play little role in the behavioural problems of children identified as having ADHD. Therefore, the two studies reported in this article investigated the relationship between parental divorce and the psychological well‐being of children with ADHD. Subjects, aged 6 to 18 years, were diagnosed with either the inattentive or combined subtype of the disorder. Firstly, differences in children's behaviour between divorced and non‐divorced families were examined, and subtype, age, and gender differences were evaluated in terms of symptom severity and comorbid conditions. Secondly, parents' perceptions of the impact of their children's behaviour on marital status and family/parental functioning were examined. Parental divorce was associated with greater symptom severity, more externalizing/ internalizing behaviours, and poorer social functioning, but less with academic underachievement. Further, parental divorce was related to adjustment differences in ADHD subtypes, age, and gender. However, the correlation between behaviour problems of children with ADHD and marital/family dysfunction was weak. It may be concluded that parental divorce was associated with the psychological well‐being in children with ADHD, and there is some suggestion that ADHD should be viewed as a bio‐psychosocial disorder.

Food insecurity, malnutrition and mortality in Maewo and Ambae islands, Vanuatu

Context: This paper reports on findings from the ex-post evaluation of the Maewo Capacity Building project in Maewo Island, Vanuatu, which was funded by World Vision Australia.
Objectives: To examine the extent to which the infrastructure and systems left behind by the project contributed to the improvement of household food security and health and nutritional outcomes in Maewo Island, using Ambae Island as a comparator.
Setting: Two-stage cluster survey conducted from 6 to 20 July 2004, which included anthropometric measures and 4.5-year retrospective mortality data collection.
Participants: A total of 406 households in Maewo comprising 1623 people and 411 households in Ambae comprising 1799 people.
Main outcome measures: Household food insecurity, crude mortality rate (CMR), under-five mortality rate (U5MR) and malnutrition prevalence among children.
Results: The prevalence of food insecurity without hunger was estimated at 15.3%
(95% confidence interval (CI): 12.1, 19.2%) in Maewo versus 38.2% (95% CI: 33.6, 43.0%) in Ambae, while food insecurity with hunger in children did not vary by location. After controlling for the child’s age and gender, children in Maewo had higher weight-for-age and height-for-age Z-scores than children of the same age in Ambae. The CMR was lower in Maewo (CMR ¼ 0.47/10 000 per day, 95% CI: 0.39, 0.55) than in Ambae (CMR ¼ 0.59/10 000 per day, 95% CI: 0.51, 0.67) but no difference existed in U5MR. The major causes of death were similar in both locations, with frequently reported causes being malaria, acute respiratory infection and
diarrhoeal disease.
Conclusions: Project initiatives in Maewo Island have reduced the risks of mortality and malnutrition. Using a cross-sectional ‘external control group’ design, this paper demonstrates that it is possible to draw conclusions about project effectiveness where baseline data are incomplete or absent. Shifting from donor-driven evaluations to impact evaluations has greater learning value for the organisation, and greater value when reporting back to the beneficiaries about project impact and transformational
development in their community. Public health nutritionists working in the field are well versed in the collection and interpretation of anthropometric data for evaluation of nutritional interventions such as emergency feeding programmes. These same skills can be used to conduct impact evaluations, even some time after project completion, and elucidate lessons to be learned and shared. These skills can also be applied more widely to projects which impact on the longer-term nutritional status of
communities and their food security.

Linking human and ecosystem health: the benefits of community involvement in conservation groups

This study explored the health, well-being, and social capital benefits gained by community members who are involved in the management of land for conservation in six rural communities across Victoria. A total of 102 people participated in the study (64 males; 38 females) comprising 51 members of a community-based land management group and 51 controls matched by age and gender. Mixed methods were employed, including the use of an adapted version of Buckner’s (1988) Community Cohesion Scale. The results indicate that involvement in the management of land for conservation may contribute to both the health and well-being of members, and to the social capital of the local community. The members of the land management groups rated their general health higher, reported visiting the doctor less often, felt safer in the local community, and utilized the skills that they have acquired in their lifetime more frequently than the control participants. Male members reported the highest level of general health, and the greatest satisfaction with daily activities. Members also reported a greater sense of belonging to the local community and a greater willingness to work toward improving their community than their control counterparts. Of equal importance is evidence that involvement in voluntary conservation work constitutes a means of building social capital in rural communities which may help reduce some of the negative aspects of rural life.