Product specialization in international trade : a further investigation

In an influential paper, Schott [Schott. Peter K. (2004). “Across-product versus within-product specialization in international trade.” Quarterly Journal of Economics, 119 (2): 647–678] makes two empirical observations about U.S. imports. (1) The United States is increasingly sourcing the same product (however narrowly defined) from both developed and developing countries. That is, ‘across-product specialization’ has been decreasing. (2) The unit values of these multiple-sourced products are positively and significantly correlated with the capital and skill abundance of exporters and with the capital–labor ratios used by exporters. That is, endowments-driven ‘within-product specialization’ has been increasing. We show that both these observations extend to the imports of Brazil, India and Japan. However, our main finding is that observation (1) is largely driven by two factors. First, China is the dominant low-wage exporter of multiple-sourced products. Second, the most developed countries remain the primary exporters of multiple-sourced products. The U.S. case is the most extreme of our four importers: When China is deleted from the U.S. import data there is no trend in across-product specialization and rich exporters are increasing their trade share of multiple-sourced products. Since deleting China has no theoretical justification, these results must be viewed not as a contradiction of Schott's work but as a way of deepening our understanding of his empirical results.

Evolutionary specialization of a tryptophan indole group for transition-state stabilization by eukaryotic transglutaminases

Covalent posttranslational protein modifications by eukaryotic transglutaminases proceed by a kinetic pathway of acylation and deacylation. Ammonia is released as the acylenzyme is formed, whereas the cross-linked product is released later in the deacylation step. Superposition of the active sites of transglutaminase type 2 (TG2) and the structurally related cysteine protease, papain, indicates that in the formation of tetrahedral intermediates, the backbone nitrogen of the catalytic Cys-277 and the N_Ɛ1 nitrogen of Trp-241 of TG2 could contribute to transition-state stabilization. The importance of this Trp-241 side chain was demonstrated by examining the kinetics of dansylcadaverine incorporation into a model peptide. Although substitution of the Trp-241 side chain with Ala or Gly had only a small effect on the Michaelis constant K_m (1.5-fold increase), it caused a >300-fold lowering of the catalytic rate constant k_cat. The wild-type and mutant TG2-catalyzed release of ammonia showed kinetics similar to the kinetics for the formation of cross-linked product, indicating that transitionstate stabilization in the acylation step was rate-limiting. In papain, a Gln residue is at the position of TG2-Trp-241. The conservation of Trp-241 in all eukaryotic transglutaminases and the finding that W241Q-TG2 had a much lower k_cat than wild-type enzyme suggest evolutionary specialization in the use of the indole group. This notion is further supported by the observation that transitionstate- stabilizing side chains of Tyr and His that operate in some serine and metalloproteases only partially substituted for Trp.

Determinants of individual foraging specialization in large marine vertebrates, the Antarctic and subantarctic fur seals

The degree of individual specialization in resource use differs widely among wild populations where individuals range from fully generalized to highly specialized. This interindividual variation has profound implications in many ecological and evolutionary processes. A recent review proposed four main ecological causes of individual specialization: interspecific and intraspecific competition, ecological opportunity and predation. Using the isotopic signature of subsampled whiskers, we investigated to what degree three of these factors (interspecific and intraspecific competition and ecological opportunity) affect the population niche width and the level of individual foraging specialization in two fur seal species, the Antarctic and subantarctic fur seals (Arctocephalus gazella and Arctocephalus tropicalis), over several years. Population niche width was greater when the two seal species bred in allopatry (low interspecific competition) than in sympatry or when seals bred in high-density stabilized colonies (high intraspecific competition). In agreement with the niche variation hypothesis (NVH), higher population niche width was associated with higher interindividual niche variation. However, in contrast to the NVH, all Antarctic females increased their niche width during the interbreeding period when they had potential access to a wider diversity of foraging grounds and associated prey (high ecological opportunities), suggesting they all dispersed to a similar productive area. The degree of individual specialization varied among populations and within the annual cycle. Highest levels of interindividual variation were found in a context of lower interspecific or higher intraspecific competition. Contrasted results were found concerning the effect of ecological opportunity. Depending on seal species, females exhibited either a greater or lower degree of individual specialization during the interbreeding period, reflecting species-specific biological constraints during that period. These results suggest a significant impact of ecological interactions on the population niche width and degree of individual specialization. Such variation at the individual level may be an important factor in the species plasticity with significant consequences on how it may respond to environmental variability.

City-level auditor industry specialization, economies of scale, and audit pricing

We examine the effects of city-level auditor industry specialization and scale economies on audit pricing in the United States. Using a sample of Big N clients for the 2000-2007 period, and a scale measure based on percentile rankings of the number of audit clients at the city-industry level, we document significant specialization premiums and scale discounts in both the pre- and post-Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) periods. However, the effects of industry specialization and scale economies on audit pricing are highly interactive. The negative effect of city-industry scale on audit fees obtains only for clients of specialist auditors. By contrast, clients of non-specialist auditors obtain scale discounts only when they enjoy strong bargaining power, suggesting that auditors are "forced" to pass on scale economies to clients with greater bargaining power.

Auditor industry specialization, political economy and earnings quality: some cross-country evidence

Using cross-country data, we evaluate the impact of investor protection on the association between earnings quality and audits by industry specialists. Our findings show that the positive association between industry specialist auditors and earnings quality as documented in the literature is affected by the political electoral system, which reflects investor protection rights in a country. We document that audits by industry specialists are associated with higher earnings quality in countries with the proportional electoral system, reflecting weak investor protection. Our results also confirm Kwon et al.'s findings that overall there is a positive association between earnings quality and audits by industry specialists in countries with weak legal enforcement. Our findings, however, indicate that Kwon et al.'s results are valid only for countries with weak investor protection reflected by the proportional electoral system and not for countries with strong investor protection reflected by the majoritarian electoral system. These findings thus suggest that higher earnings quality of firms audited by industry specialists across countries can especially be expected when investor protection is low and legal enforcement is also weak. In addition, our research suggests that future cross-country studies could explicitly consider the role of the political electoral system of a country in evaluating corporate governance, management and accounting issues.

Successional specialization in a reptile community cautions against widespread planned burning and complete fire suppression

Summary: Conservation of biodiversity in fire-prone regions depends on understanding responses to fire in animal communities and the mechanisms governing these responses. We collated data from an Australian semi-arid woodland reptile community (4796 individuals captured over 6 years) to: (i) determine the ability of commonly used shorter-term (2 years) surveys to detect reptile responses to time since fire (TSF) and (ii) investigate whether ecological traits of species reliably predicted their responses to fire. Of 16 reptile species analysed, four had responses to TSF consistent with shorter-term surveys and three showed no response to TSF. Nine species had responses to TSF not detected in previous studies using smaller but substantial subsets of the same data. Among the 13 affected species, times of peak abundance ranged from 1 to 50 years after fire. Nocturnal, burrowing species tended to be early successional and leaf-litter dwellers to be late successional, but these were only weak trends. Synthesis and applications. We found only limited support for a generalizable, trait-based model of succession in reptiles. However, our study revealed that the majority of common reptile species in our study region specialize on a post-fire successional stage and may therefore become threatened if homogeneous fire regimes predominate. Our study highlights the importance of interpreting results from time- or sample-limited fire studies of reptiles with the knowledge that many ecological responses may not have been detected. In such cases, an adaptive or precautionary approach to fire management may be necessary. We found only limited support for a generalizable, trait-based model of succession in reptiles. However, our study revealed that the majority of common reptile species in our study region specialize on a post-fire successional stage and may therefore become threatened if homogeneous fire regimes predominate. Our study highlights the importance of interpreting results from time- or sample-limited fire studies of reptiles with the knowledge that many ecological responses may not have been detected. In such cases, an adaptive or precautionary approach to fire management may be necessary.

The making of modern scientific personae: the scientist as a moral person? Emil Du Bois-Reymond and his friends

This article examines the notion of the 'scientist as a moral person' in the light of the early stages of the commodification of science and the transformation of research into a big enterprise, operating on the principle of the division of labour. These processes were set in train at the end of the 19th century. The article focuses on the concomitant changes in the public persona and the habitus of scientific entrepreneurs. I begin by showing the significance of the professional networks that were built up and maintained to further a group's research ideas and the careers of its members, thus demonstrating one condition on which depended their practice of science and their ability to earn a living. This leads to a characterization of the changing styles of work, thought and life, and to a consideration of public perceptions and of the ways in which a new self-image of scholarship and science was fashioned. A critical discussion of the public role of these mandarin scientists follows in order to highlight the strains created by the commodification of science at a time of international tensions and conflicts, when shared beliefs in scholarly cosmopolitanism were subverted by appeals to science and scholarship to work in the service of one's own nation as its 'courtiers'. Various considerations of peculiar analogies between national styles of research and the style of social organization are then noted. In the final section, the article queries the long-term impact of these developments on the ideal of the scientist as a 'moral person'. Taking a cue from Max Weber and pursuing reflections by Zygmunt Bauman on 'science moralized', I argue that the emergence of a type of 'specialists without spirit' was an unintended but fatal consequence of the changes in research practices promoted by scientific entrepreneurs such as Du Bois-Reymond. I conclude that the temptation to sever the ties to a general ethos of civil virtues lay in the rationalization, specialization and potential de-humanization of the objectifying scientific outlook once advocated for its efficiency.

Hospital in the home: constructions of the nursing role - a literature review

• Acute medical and nursing treatment in the home is increasingly seen as an alternative to hospitalization. Models such as hospital in the home (HITH) or acute home care are said to provide a safe, comfortable environment for patients that is conducive to healing.

• A review of the literature reveals the embryonic nature of the research and discussion related to this alternative care delivery model. In general, the benefits of hospital in the home programmes are presented in an uncritical manner.

• Medical practitioners have embraced the move to home care as a means of expanding the use of advanced technologies and improved drug regimes beyond the hospital walls.

• The nursing response has been mechanistic and recipe-like while advancing the HITH nursing role as an opportunity for speciality practice by virtue of the increased autonomy and independence required.

• This review demonstrates the influence of a professional mandate for specialization, and the ideological and scientific interests that have influenced the role of the nurse.

A trial of nurse practitioner scope of practice

Aims. The aim of this paper is to report a trial to investigate the feasibility of the nurse practitioner role in local health service delivery and to provide information about the educational and legislative requirements for nurse practitioner practice.

Background. Nurse practitioners have been shown to offer a beneficial service and fill a gap in health care provision. However, the lack of publications describing, critiquing, or defending the way that existing nurse practitioner roles have been developed may lead to a lack of clarity in comparing the nurse practitioner scope of practice internationally. In Australia, credible exploratory research is needed to realize the potential of nurse practitioners to bridge the divide of inequitable distribution of health services. A trial of nurse practitioner services in the Australian Capital Territory provided an excellent opportunity to investigate these scope and continuity issues.

Methods. This was an observational analytic study using multiple data sources. Four models of nurse practitioner service were chosen from a competitive field of applications that were evaluated according to efficacy, feasibility, and sustainability across specified selection criteria. Each model in the trial included a clinical support team, with the nurse practitioner candidate 'working-into-the-role' and collecting demographic, clinical practice, patient outcome, and health service and consumer survey data over a 10 month period.

Findings. The trial identified the broad potential of the nurse practitioner role, its breadth and limitations, and its impact on selected health services in the Australian Capital Territory. Data from individual models were compared highlighting generic elements, and formed the basis for the development of the scope of practice for the Australian Capital Territory nurse practitioner models.

Conclusions. This study has validated a research-based, iterative process for initial development of nurse practitioner scope of practice for any Australian specialization. Importantly, the study concluded with the scope of practice as a finding, rather than commencing with it a priori. Although general areas of health care need and under-servicing were identified at the outset, the process tested both the expansion and parameters of the roles.

Issues in the provision of nursing care to people undergoing cardiac surgery who also have type 2 diabetes

There has been little investigation of the issues associated with caring for patients presenting for cardiac surgery with a comorbid diagnosis of diabetes although there is some evidence that the diabetes management is suboptimal. This study aimed to identify issues that patients and cardiac specialist nurses experience with the provision of inpatient services for people undergoing cardiac surgery who also have type 2 diabetes. A qualitative interpretive design, using individual interviews with patients and nurses, provided data about some of these issues. The study found that nurses had high levels of confidence in their cardiac care but little confidence in diabetes management. Patients described concerns about their diabetes care and treatment regimens. A 'typical journey' for a person with diabetes undergoing cardiac surgery was identified. The findings support the need to build increased capacity in specialist nurses to support diabetes care as a secondary diagnosis.

Inspiration and mimesis in Plato's criticism of poetry

Plato criticizes poetry in several of his dialogues, beginning with Apology, his first work, and ending with Laws, his last. In these dialogues, his criticism of poetry can be divided into two streams: poetry is criticized for either being divinely inspired, or because it is mimetic or imitative of reality. However, of the dialogues which criticize poetry in these ways, it is not until Laws that Plato mentions both inspiration and mimesis together, and then it is only in a few sentences. Furthermore, nowhere in the dialogues does Plato discuss their relationship. This situation has a parallel in the secondary literature. While much work has been done on inspiration or mimesis in Plato’s criticism of poetry, very little work exists which discusses the connection between them. This study examines Plato’s treatment - in the six relevant dialogues - of these two poetic elements, inspiration and mimesis, and shows that a relationship exists between them. Both can be seen to relate to two important Socratic-Platonic concerns: the care of the soul and the welfare of the state. These concerns represent a synthesis of Socratic moral philosophy with Platonic political beliefs. In the ‘inspiration’ dialogues, Ion, Apology, Meno, Phaedrus and Laws, poetic inspiration can affect the Socratic exhortation which considers the care of the individual soul. Further, as we are told in Apology, Crito and Gorgias, it is the good man, the virtuous man - the one who cares for his soul - who also cares for the welfare of the state. Therefore, in its effect on the individual soul, poetic inspiration can also indirectly affect the state. In the ‘mimesis’ dialogues, Republic and Laws, this same exhortation, on the care of the soul, is posed, but it is has now been rendered into a more Platonic form - as either the principle of specialization - the ‘one man, one job’ creed of Republic, which advances the harmony between the three elements of the soul, or as the concord between reason and emotion in Laws. While in Republic, mimesis can damage the tripartite soul's delicate balance, in Laws, mimesis in poetry is used to promote the concord. Further, in both these dialogues, poetic mimesis can affect the welfare of the state. In Republic, Socrates notes that states arc but a product of the individuals of which they are composed Therefore, by affecting the harmony of the individual soul, mimesis can then undermine the harmony of the state, and an imperfect political system, such as a timarchy, an oligarchy, a democracy, or a tyranny, can result. However, in Laws, when it is harnessed by the philosophical lawgivers, mimesis can assist in the concord between the rulers and the ruled, thus serving the welfare of the state. Inspiration and mimesis can thus be seen to be related in their effect on the education of both the individual, in the care of the soul, and the state, in its welfare. Plato's criticism of poetry, therefore, which is centred on these two features, addresses common Platonic concerns: in education, politics, ethics, epistemology and psychology.

Shaping an Autralian nursing and midwifery specialy framework for workforce regulation: criteria development

One of the biggest obstacles identified in achieving Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) was the lack of available qualified health personal to meet the health needs of the global population. With nurses being the main workforce  component in health systems, the human resource challenge for most  countries is to address the reported shortage of nurses. Skill mix is one suggestion.

In Australia, workforce projections indicated a shortage of 40,000 nurses by 2010. Toward the reform of the Australian health workforce, one project aimed to develop a nationally consistent framework for nursing and midwifery specialization based on knowledge and skills to generate the first national  database iteration for designated specialties. A literature review looked at the way nursing specialty practices were defined in the United Kingdom, the United States of America and Canada. Three international and three national sources of criteria for specialty nursing practice were mapped against each other. The result was six criteria synthesized to define nursing practice groups as Australian  nursing specialties. Each criterion was operationalized with criteria indicators to meet Australian expectations. The nurses in Australia commented on the criteria before they were finalized. An audit of national workforce databases identified nursing practice groups. The criteria were applied to identify nursing specialties and practice strands that would form a national nursing framework. This paper reports on the criteria developed to assess specialty practice at a national level in Australia.

Remotely sensed hydroacoustics and observation data for predicting fish habitat suitability

This paper investigates the use of using remotely sensed observation and full coverage hydroacoustic datasets to quantify habitat suitability for a marine demersal fish, the blue-throated wrasse. Because of issues surrounding the detection of species using remotely sensed video techniques, the application of presence-only techniques are well suited for modeling demersal fish habitat suitability. Ecological-Niche Factor Analysis is used to compare analyses conducted using seafloor variables derived from hydroacoustics at three spatial scales; fine (56.25 m²), medium (506.25 m²) and coarse (2756.25 m²), to determine which spatial scale was most influential in predicting blue-throated wrasse habitat suitability. The coarse scale model was found to have the best predictive capabilities with a Boyce Index of 0.80±0.26. The global marginality and specialization values indicated that, irrespective of spatial scale, blue-throated wrasse prefer seafloor characteristics that are different to the mean available within the study site, but exhibit a relatively wide niche. Although variable importance varied over the three spatial scale models, blue-throated wrasse showed a strong preference for regions of shallow water, close to reef, with high rugosity and maximum curvature and low HSI-B values. Generally the spatial patterns in habitat suitability were well represented in the Marine National Park compared to adjacent waters. However, some significant differences in spatial patterns were observed. Interspersion and Juxtaposition Indexes for unsuitable and highly suitable habitat were significantly smaller inside the Marine National Park, while the Mean Shape Index of unsuitable habitat in the Marine National Park was significantly larger.

C. P. Snow’s The two cultures : Michael Polanyi’s response and context

C. P. Snow’s “The Two Cultures” controversially contrasted science and literature, suggesting that neither scientists nor literary intellectuals have much in common with, and seldom bother speaking to, the other. Responding to Snow, Michael Polanyi argued that specialization has made modern culture, not twofold but manifold. In his major work, Personal Knowledge, Polanyi explained that branches of modern culture have personal knowing and knowledge in common, and there is extensive cross-pollination of ideas. He also, in this book, saw the branches of culture as disparate intellectual frameworks that are divorced from one another.