Television viewing habits associated with obesity risk factors: a survey of Melbourne schoolchildren.

Objectives: To examine whether children’s television viewing may be a useful indicator of risk of obesity-promoting versus healthy eating behaviours, low-level physical activity (PA) and overweight or obesity among children of primary school entry and exit ages. Design: Cross-sectional study, stratified by area-level socioeconomic status. Participants and setting: 1560 children (613 aged 5–6 years [50% boys], and 947 aged 10–12 years [46% boys]) from 24 primary schools in Melbourne, Australia, randomly selected proportionate to school size between 1 November 2002 and 30 December 2003 . Main outcome measures: Parents’ reports of the time their child spends watching television, their participation in organised physical activities (PA), and their food intake; each child’s measured height and weight and their PA levels as assessed by accelerometry for one week. Results: After adjusting for the age and sex of child, the parents’ level of education, clustering by school, and all other health behaviour variables, children who watched television for > 2 h/day were significantly more likely than children who watched television for ≤ 2 h/day to: to have one or more serves/day of high energy drinks (adjusted odds ratio [AOR], 2.31; 95% CI, 1.61–3.32), and to have one or more serves/day of savoury snacks (AOR, 1.50; 95% CI, 1.04–2.17). They were also less likely to have two or more serves/day of fruit (AOR, 0.58; 95% CI, 0.46–0.74), or to participate in any organised PA (AOR, 0.52; 95% CI, 0.34–0.80). Conclusions: Health practitioners in the primary care setting may find that asking whether a child watches television for more than 2 hours daily can be a useful indicator of a child’s risk of poor diet and low physical activity level.

Sour taste preferences of children relates to preference for novel and intense stimuli

Previous research has suggested that some children have a preference for sour tastes. The origin of this preference remains unclear. We investigated whether preference for sour tastes is related to a difference in rated sour intensity due to physiological properties of saliva, or to an overall preference for intense and new stimuli. Eighty-nine children 7–12 years old carried out a rank-order procedure for preference and category scale for perceived intensity for four gelatins (i.e. 0.0 M, 0.02 M, 0.08 M, 0.25 M added citric acid) and four yellow cards that differed in brightness. In addition, we measured their willingness to try a novel candy and their flow and buffering capacity of their saliva. Fifty-eight percent of the children tested preferred one of the two most sour gelatins. These children had a higher preference for the brightest color (P < 0.05) and were more likely to try the candy with the unknown flavor (P < 0.001) than children who did not prefer the most sour gelatins. Preference for sour taste was not related with differences in rated sour intensity, however those who preferred sour taste had a higher salivary flow (P < 0.05). These findings show that a substantial proportion of young children have a preference for extreme sour taste. This appears to be related to the willingness to try unknown foods and preference for intense visual stimuli. Further research is needed to investigate how these findings can be implemented in the promotion of sour-tasting food such as fruit.

Mid-Holocene vertebrate bone Concentration-Lagerstätte on oceanic island Mauritius provides a window into the ecosystem of the dodo (Raphus cucullatus)

Although the recent history of human colonisation and impact on Mauritius is well documented, virtually no records of the pre-human native ecosystem exist, making it difficult to assess the magnitude of the changes brought about by human settlement. Here, we describe a 4000-year-old fossil bed at Mare aux Songes (MAS) in south-eastern Mauritius that contains both macrofossils (vertebrate fauna, gastropods, insects and flora) and microfossils (diatoms, pollen, spores and phytoliths). With >250 bone fragments/m2 and comprising 50% of all known extinct and extant vertebrate species (ns = 44) of Mauritius, MAS may constitute the first Holocene vertebrate bone Concentration-Lagerstätte identified on an oceanic volcanic island. Fossil remains are dominated by extinct giant tortoises Cylindraspis spp. (63%), passerines (10%), small bats (7.8%) and dodo Raphus cucullatus (7.1%). Twelve radiocarbon ages [four of them duplicates] from bones and other material suggest that accumulation of fossils took place within several centuries. An exceptional combination of abiotic conditions led to preservation of bones, bone collagen, plant tissue and microfossils. Although bone collagen is well preserved, DNA from dodo and other Mauritian vertebrates has proved difficult. Our analysis suggests that from ca 4000 years ago (4 ka), rising sea levels created a freshwater lake at MAS, generating an oasis in an otherwise dry environment which attracted a diverse vertebrate fauna. Subsequent aridification in the south-west Indian Ocean region may have increased carcass accumulation during droughts, contributing to the exceptionally high fossil concentration. The abundance of floral and faunal remains in this Lagerstätte offers a unique opportunity to reconstruct a pre-human ecosystem on an oceanic island, providing a key foundation for assessing the vulnerability of island ecosystems to human impact.

An electrochemical impedance study of ionic liquid film formation and aqueous corrosion of magnesium alloy ZE41

Ionic liquid surface treatments are proposed as a method of controlling corrosion processes on magnesium alloys. An important magnesium alloy, ZE41 (nominally 4% Zn and 1% rare earth), was treated with the ionic liquid trihexyl(tetradecyl)phosphonium diphenylphosphate (P₆₆₆₁₄DPP). Impedance spectra were acquired at intervals during the treatment, indicating the development of a film and allowing a measure of the film formation process to be obtained over time. Mechanically polished and electro-polished surfaces were prepared; these surfaces, treated and untreated, were subsequently exposed to 0.1 M NaCl aqueous solutions. The corrosion behavior of the prepared surfaces were assessed using impedance spectroscopy and optical microscopy. The results indicated a significant role for the method of surface preparation used and, in both cases, the ionic liquid treatment produced a more corrosion-resistant surface.

The role of reducing intakes of saturated fat in the prevention of cardiovascular disease : where does the evidence stand in 2010?

Current dietary recommendations advise reducing the intake of saturated fatty acids (SFAs) to reduce coronary heart disease (CHD) risk, but recent findings question the role of SFAs. This expert panel reviewed the evidence and reached the following conclusions: the evidence from epidemiologic, clinical, and mechanistic studies is consistent in finding that the risk of CHD is reduced when SFAs are replaced with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). In populations who consume a Western diet, the replacement of 1% of energy from SFAs with PUFAs lowers LDL cholesterol and is likely to produce a reduction in CHD incidence of >2–3%. No clear benefit of substituting carbohydrates for SFAs has been shown, although there might be a benefit if the carbohydrate is unrefined and has a low glycemic index. Insufficient evidence exists to judge the effect on CHD risk of replacing SFAs with MUFAs. No clear association between SFA intake relative to refined carbohydrates and the risk of insulin resistance and diabetes has been shown. The effect of diet on a single biomarker is insufficient evidence to assess CHD risk. The combination of multiple biomarkers and the use of clinical endpoints could help substantiate the effects on CHD. Furthermore, the effect of particular foods on CHD cannot be predicted solely by their content of total SFAs because individual SFAs may have different cardiovascular effects and major SFA food sources contain other constituents that could influence CHD risk. Research is needed to clarify the role of SFAs compared with specific forms of carbohydrates in CHD risk and to compare specific foods with appropriate alternatives.

Adaptive depletion for improvement of MPEG video compression

Traditional data compression algorithms for 2D images work using the information theoretic paradigm, attempting to reduce redundant information by as much as possible. However, through the use of a depletion algorithm that takes advantage of characteristics of the human visual system, images can be displayed using only half or a quarter of the original information with no appreciable loss of quality.

The characteristics of the human visual system that allows the viewer to perceive a higher rate of information than is actually displayed is known as the beta or picket fence effect. It is called the picket fence effect because its effect is noticeable when a person is travelling along a picket fence. Despite the person not having an unimpeded view of the objects behind the fence at any instant, as the person is moving, the objects behind the picket fence are clearly visible. In fact, in most cases the fence is hardly noticeable at all.

The techniques we have developed uses this effect to achieve higher levels of compression than would otherwise be possible. As a fundamental characteristic of the beta effect is the requirement that there is movement of the fence in relation to the object, the beta effect can only be used in image sequences where movement between the depletion pattern and objects within the image can be achieved.

As MPEG is the recognised standard by which image sequences are coded, compatibility with MPEG is essential. We have modified our technique such that it performs in conjunction with MPEG, providing further compression over MPEG.

Severely obese people with diabetes experience impaired emotional well-being associated with socioeconomic disadvantage: results from diabetes MILES – Australia

Aim
To examine the emotional well-being of severely obese Australians with type 2 diabetes, along with markers of social and economic disadvantage, using the Diabetes MILES – Australia dataset.
Methods
Diabetes MILES – Australia was a national survey of 3338 adults with diabetes that focused on psychosocial issues; 1795 had type 2 diabetes and reported BMI. We extracted data regarding depression (PHQ-9), anxiety (GAD-7), obesity- and diabetes- related comorbidities, and demographics. The severely obese group (SOG) (BMI ≥ 35; median BMI = 41.6) constituted 530 (30%) of the type 2 diabetes respondents and was matched with 530 controls (CG) (BMI < 35; median BMI = 28.2). Within- and between- group trends were examined.
Results
The SOG had higher depression scores (median (IQR) 6.0 (3–12)) than CG (5.0 (2–10)); p < 0.001, and were more likely to report moderate-severe depressive symptoms (37% versus 27%; p < 0.001). The groups did not differ on anxiety. The SOG, compared with the CG, were more likely to live alone (21% versus 17%), receive a disability pension (21% versus 15%), earn ≤$40.000/year (51% versus 41%; all p < 0.05), and were less likely to be employed (46% versus 53%), university or higher educated (17% versus 26%), or have health insurance (50% versus 60%; all p ≤ 0.01). Moderate-severe depression was positively associated with cumulative stressors of severe obesity, socioeconomic disadvantage, and obesity- and diabetes- related comorbidity.
Conclusions
Severely obese people living with type 2 diabetes have cumulative stressors related to health, disability, demographic and socioeconomic factors, and impaired emotional well-being.

Does the shortage of diabetes specialists in regional and rural Australia matter? Results from Diabetes MILES – Australia.

Aim: To investigate differences in access to services and health outcomes between people living with Type 1 (T1DM) and Type 2 (T2DM) diabetes in rural/regional and metropolitan areas.

Methods: Diabetes MILES—Australia was a national postal/online survey of persons registered with the National Diabetes Services Scheme. Selected variables, including utilisation of health care services and self-care indicators, were analysed for 3338 respondents with T1DM (41%) or T2DM (59%).

Results: Respondents from rural/regional (n=1574, 48%) and metropolitan areas were represented equally (n=1700, 52%). After adjusting for diabetes duration, demographic and socioeconomic variables, rural/regional respondents with T1DM (RR 0.90, 95% CI 0.83–0.97) and T2DM (RR 0.69, 95% CI 0.59–0.81) were less likely to report consulting an endocrinologist during the past 12 months. Rural/regional respondents with T1DM were more than twice as likely to have accessed a community/practice nurse for diabetes care (RR 2.22, 95% CI 1.25–3.93) while those with T2DM were more likely to have accessed a diabetes educator (RR 1.21, 95% CI 1.07–1.36) or dietician (RR 1.17, 95% CI 1.07–1.36). For the T1DM and T2DM groups were no differences between rural/regional and metropolitan respondents in self-reported hypoglycaemic events during past week and the majority of self-care indicators.

Conclusions: Despite a lack of access to medical specialists, respondents with T1DM and T2DM living in rural/regional areas did not report worse health or self-care indicators. The results suggest that multidisciplinary primary services in rural areas may be providing additional care for people with diabetes, compensating for poor access to specialists.

A review of online learning in supervised neural networks

Learning in neural networks can broadly be divided into two categories, viz., off-line (or batch) learning and online (or incremental) learning. In this paper, a review of a variety of supervised neural networks with online learning capabilities is presented. Specifically, we focus on articles published in main indexed journals in the past 10 years (2003–2013). We examine a number of key neural network architectures, which include feedforward neural networks, recurrent neural networks, fuzzy neural networks, and other related networks. How the online learning methodologies are incorporated into these networks is exemplified, and how they are applied to solving problems in different domains is highlighted. A summary of the review that covers different network architectures and their applications is presented.

Melamine–melem adduct phases: Investigating the thermal condensation of melamine

By studying the thermal condensation of melamine, we have identified three solid molecular adducts consisting of melamine C3N3(NH2)3 and melem C6N7(NH2)3 in differing molar ratios. We solved the crystal structure of 2 C3N3(NH2)3⋅C6N7(NH2)3 (1; C2/c; a=21.526(4), b=12.595(3), c=6.8483(14) Å; β=94.80(3)°; Z=4; V=1850.2(7) Å3), C3N3(NH2)3⋅C6N7(NH2)3 (2; Pcca; a=7.3280(2), b=7.4842(2), c=24.9167(8) Å; Z=4; V=1366.54(7) Å3), and C3N3(NH2)3⋅3 C6N7(NH2)3 (3; C2/c; a=14.370(3), b=25.809(5), c=8.1560(16) Å; β=94.62(3)°; Z=4; V=3015.0(10) Å3) by using single-crystal XRD. All syntheses were carried out in sealed glass ampoules starting from melamine. By variation of the reaction conditions in terms of temperature, pressure, and the presence of ammonia-binding metals (europium) we gained a detailed insight into the occurrence of the three adduct phases during the thermal condensation process of melamine leading to melem. A rational bulk synthesis allowed us to realize adduct phases as well as phase separation into melamine and melem under equilibrium conditions. A solid-state NMR spectroscopic investigation of adduct 1 was conducted.

Unpacking black boxes: Mechanisms and theory building in evaluation

There is growing interest in the concept of ‘‘mechanism’’ across many areas of the social sciences. In the field of program and policy evaluation, a number of scholars have also emphasized the importance of causal mechanisms for explaining how and why programs work. However, there appears to be some ambiguity about the meaning and uses of mechanism-based thinking in both the social science and evaluation literature. In this article we attempt to clarify what is meant by mechanisms in the context of program evaluation by identifying three main characteristics of mechanisms and outlining a possible typology of mechanisms. A number of theoretical and practical implications for evaluators are also discussed, along with some precautions to consider when investigating mechanisms that might plausibly account for program outcomes.

Associations between economic hardship and markers of self-management in adults with type 2 diabetes: results from Diabetes MILES - Australia

A socioeconomic gradient exists in Australia for type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). It remains unclear whether economic hardship is associated with T2DM self-management behaviours.