Multiple origins of the endemic Australian Macrobrachium (Descapoda: Palaemonidae) based on 16S rRNA mitochondrial sequences

The evolutionary relationships of the freshwater prawn genus Macrobrachium are obscure. Members of this genus are widely distributed across tropical and subtropical regions. The phylogenetic relationships among the seven endemic and six non-endemic Australian Macrobrachium, along with five non-Australian species, were inferred from the mitochondrial 16S rRNA gene sequences. Methods of analysis yielded phylogenetic trees of differing topologies; however, none supported a monophyletic origin for endemic Australian Macrobrachium. Enforced monophyly of a single origin of endemic Macrobrachium was statistically tested and rejected. These results support the view that the endemic Australian Macrobrachium arose from multiple origins. Previous biogeographical hypotheses related to the radiation of Macrobrachium into Australia are re-examined in the context of these results.

Developmental origins of obesity and the metabolic syndrome : the role of maternal obesity

Obesity and its sequelae may prove to be the greatest threat to human lifestyle and health in the developed world this century. The so called obesity epidemic has seen the incidence of obesity and overweight almost double in Western societies and the trend is mirrored in nations that are transitioning to first world economies. There is no doubt that much of the rise in obesity can be attributed to lifestyle factors such as the excess consumption of energy-dense foods and the decline in physical activity. However, the ‘fetal origins’hypothesis, first proposed by Barker and colleagues and elaborated by several groups over the past 15 years to be termed the ‘Developmental Origins of Adult Health and Disease’ (DOHaD), provides an alternative explanation for the rising rates of obesity. The DOHaD hypothesis states that exposure to an unfavourable environment during development (either in utero or in the early postnatal period) programmes changes in fetal or neonatal development such that the individual is then at greater risk of developing adulthood disease. This chapter discusses the effects of maternal obesity on fetal development and birth outcomes as well as the manner in which DOHaD may contribute to the obesity epidemic.

Maternal and neonatal influences on, and reproducibility of, neonatal aortic pulse wave velocity

Aortic pulse wave velocity (aPWV), a noninvasive measure of vascular stiffness, is an independent predictor of cardiovascular disease both before and in overt vascular disease. Its characteristics in early life and its relationship to maternal factors have hardly been studied. To test the hypothesis that infant aPWV was positively related to maternal anthropometry and blood pressure (BP) at 28 weeks gestation, after adjusting for neonatal anthropometry and BP, 148 babies born in Manchester were measured 1 to 3 days after birth. A high reproducibility of aPWV, assessed in 30 babies within 3 days of birth, was found with a mean difference between occasions of –0.04 m/s (95% CI: –0.08 to 0.16 m/s). Contrary to our hypothesis, a significant inverse relation was found between neonatal aPWV (mean: 4.6 m/s) and maternal systolic BP (mean: 108.9 mm Hg; r=–0.57; 95% CI: –0.67 to –0.45) but not maternal height nor weight. Neonatal aPWV was positively correlated with birth length, birth weight, and systolic BP. In multiple regression, neonatal aPWV remained significantly inversely associated with maternal systolic BP (adjusted ß coefficient: –0.032; 95% CI: –0.040 to –0.024; P<0.001), after adjustment for maternal age, birth weight, length, and neonatal BP (all independently and positively related to aPWV) and for gestational age, maternal weight, and height (unrelated). These results suggest that infant aPWV may be a useful index of infant vascular status, is less disturbing to measure than infant BP, and is sensitive to the gestational environment marked by maternal BP.

Origins of inflated responsibility in obsessive compulsive disorder

The pivotal role of inflated responsibility beliefs in the maintenance and treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) has been clearly demonstrated (Rachman, 1993; Salkovskis, 1998; Shafran, 1997; van Oppen & Arntz, 1994). Yet little is known about the origins of these beliefs, their contribution to a sense of inflated responsibility or the symptoms of OCD, or the contribution of personality to inflated responsibility and to OCD, The aims of this thesis were to investigate a model of the inter-relationships among the personality dimensions of neuroticism and psychoticism, inflated responsibility and OCD, and the origins of inflated responsibility to inflated responsibility and to OCD. In order to achieve these aims, a scale was developed to assess the origins of inflated responsibility based upon the five pathways proposed by Salkovskis, Shafran, Rachman, and Freeston (1999) and the additional domains of guilt, vigilance and thought-action fusion (Shafran, Thordarson, & Rachman, 1996; Shafran, Watkins & Charman, 1996; Tallis, 1994). Eighty-four participants with OCD (age M = 43.36) and 74 control participants (age M =37.14) volunteered to participate in the two studies of this thesis. The aim of Study 1 was to develop and validate a measure of the Origins of Inflated Responsibility (OIR). The results of the first study yielded a 25-ttem scale, the Origins of Inflated Responsibility Questionnaire (OIRQ) with five independent factors: responsibility, strictness, protection from responsibility, critical incidents, and peer blame which demonstrated both internal reliability and temporal stability over a 2-week period. In Study 2, participants also completed the Responsibility Attitudes Scale (Salkovskis, Wroe, Gledhill, Morrison, Forrester, Richards, ct al. (2000) (a measure of inflated responsibility), the Padua Inventory (Sanavio, 1988) (to measure of the symptoms of OCD)y and the Eysenck Personality Inventory-Revised (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1991). Multivariatc Analysis of Variance revealed that the OCD group scored higher on all variables than the control group except for strictness where the groups were not different, and psychoticism where the OCD group scored lower. A series of Multiple Regression analyses revealed that both group and the OIR contributed to inflated responsibility (R2 = .56). When all variables, OIR, inflated responsibility and neuroticism were entered as predictors of OCD, 60% of the variance in OCD was explained however, 49% of the variance was shared by the independent variables suggesting the presence of some underlying construct. Structural Equation Modelling, where all the constructs in the model were examined simultaneously, revealed that neuroticism contributed to the OIR, inflated responsibility and OCD. The OIR were also significant predictors of inflated responsibility and indirectly through inflated responsibility predictive of OCD. The OIR also directly predicted OCD and when the total effects are considered, their contribution was greater than the total effect for inflated responsibility alone. The results of these studies provide good support for the origins of inflated responsibility proposed by Salkovskis et al. (1999), as measured by the OIRQ developed for use in the current thesis. The results also support the contribution of inflated responsibility and neuroticism, as well as the OIR, to OCD, The large amount of variance shared by the OIR, inflated responsibility and neuroticism suggest that there might be some underlying construct, perhaps of a biopsychosocial nature, that requires further investigation for its role in the onset and maintenance of OCD. The clinical relevance of these findings is discussed in terms of early prevention strategies and interventions.

Maternal and best friends' influences on meal-skipping behaviours

Skipping meals is particularly common during adolescence and can have a detrimental effect on multiple aspects of adolescent health. Understanding the correlates of meal-skipping behaviours is important for the design of nutrition interventions. The present study examined maternal and best friends’ influences on adolescent meal-skipping behaviours. Frequency of skipping breakfast, lunch and dinner was assessed using a Web-based survey completed by 3001 adolescent boys and girls from years 7 and 9 of secondary schools in Victoria, Australia. Perceived best friend and maternal meal skipping, modelling of healthy eating (eating healthy food, limiting junk food, eating fruit and vegetables) and weight watching were assessed. Best friend and maternal factors were differentially associated with meal-skipping behaviours. For example, boys and girls who perceived that their best friend often skipped meals were more likely to skip lunch (OR ¼ 2·01, 95% CI 1·33, 3·04 and OR ¼ 1·93, 95% CI 1·41, 2·65; P,0·001). Boys and girls who perceived that their mother often skipped meals were more likely to skip breakfast (OR ¼ 1·48, 95% CI 1·01, 2·15; P,0·05 and OR ¼ 1·93, 95% CI 1·42, 2·59; P,0·001) and lunch (OR ¼ 2·05, 95% CI 1·35, 3·12 and OR ¼ 2·02, 95% CI 1·43, 2·86; P,0·001). Educating adolescents on how to assess and interpret unhealthy eating behaviours that they observe from significant others may be one nutrition promotion strategy to reduce meal-skipping behaviour. The involvement of mothers may be particularly important in such efforts. Encouraging a peer subculture that promotes regular consumption of meals and educates adolescents on the detrimental impact of meal-skipping behaviour on health may also offer a promising nutrition promotion strategy.

Developmental origins of obesity-related hypertension

1. In the past 30 years the prevalence of obesity and overweight have doubled. It is now estimated that globally over 500 million adults are obese and a further billion adults are overweight. Obesity is a cardiovascular risk factor and some studies suggest that up to 70% of cases of essential hypertension may be attributable, in part, to obesity. Increasingly, evidence supports a view that obesity-related hypertension may be driven by altered hypothalamic signalling, which results in inappropriately high appetite and sympathetic nerve activity to the kidney.

2. In addition to the adult risk factors for obesity and hypertension, the environment encountered in early life may ‘programme’ the development of obesity, hypertension and cardiovascular disease. In particular, maternal obesity or high dietary fat intake in pregnancy may induce changes in fetal growth trajectories and predispose individuals to develop obesity and related sequelae.

3. The mechanisms underlying the programming of obesity-related hypertension are becoming better understood. However, several issues require clarification, particularly with regard to the role of the placenta in transferring fatty acid to the fetal compartment, the impact of placental inflammation and cytokine production in obesity.

4. By understanding which factors are most associated with the development of obesity and hypertension in the offspring, we can focus therapeutic and behavioural interventions to most efficiently reduce the intergenerational propagation of the obesity cycle.

The correlates of preschoolers' compliance with screen recommendations exist across multiple domains

Objective:
To investigate the individual, social and physical environment correlates of preschool children's compliance with Australian/Canadian and American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) screen recommendations.

Method:
An Ecological Model (EM) was used to identify constructs potentially associated with children's screen time. In 2008–2009, parents in Melbourne, Australia, reported their child's screen time and on a range of potential correlates. Children (n = 935; 54% boys, mean age 4.54 ± 0.70 years) were assessed as meeting or not meeting each of the screen recommendations. Logistic regression assessed bivariable and multivariable associations.

Results:
In total, 15 explanatory variables, across the three domains of the EM were associated with boys' and/or girls' compliance with either Australian/Canadian or AAP recommendations. Correlates varied by sex and recommendation. Maternal television viewing time was the only consistent correlate for both boys' and girls' compliance with both recommendations. No demographic groups were identified as being less likely to comply with screen recommendations.

Conclusion:
Public health programs should take account of the sex-specific nature of correlates of preschool children's screen time. Preschool children across all demographic groups need support to engage in less screen use. Parents may benefit from education and parenting skills to minimize potentially harmful effects of excessive screen time for their child.

The War Memoirs: Some origins of the thought of W.R. Bion

The work of W. R. Bion changed the shape of psychoanalytic theory in fundamental ways, one of the most important of which was Bion's insight into the nature of normal projective identification. No other psychoanalytic theorist has Bion's ability to represent the horrors of psychic abandonment and the converse, the absolute necessity of the presence of another mind for psychic survival. Through a discussion of Bion's War Memoirs 1917-1919 (Bion, 1997), Attacks on linking and A theory of thinking (1993), this paper explores the link between war, masculinity, the maternal and Bion's sensitivity to the significance of everyday interpersonal contact. It is argued that Bion's apocalyptic experiences as a teenage tank commander gave him shattering insight into the extent to which mind is inter-mind, self is inter-self. Bion's life writing has the quality of survivor insight: 'And only I am escaped alone to tell thee' (Job 1: 14-19), as he returns repeatedly to the events of the day when he 'died ', 8 August 1918. His insight into the elemental passions nature of love, hate and mindlessness are borne of his experiences on the battlefield, and exquisitely crystallized in his repeated explorations of an encounter with a dying soldier.

Maternal overnutrition programs changes in the expression of skeletal muscle genes that are associated with insulin resistance and defects of oxidative phosphorylation in adult male rat offspring.

Children of obese mothers have increased risk of metabolic syndrome as adults. Here we report the effects of a high-fat diet in the absence of maternal obesity at conception on skeletal muscle metabolic and transcriptional profiles of adult male offspring. Female Sprague Dawley rats were fed a diet rich in saturated fat and sucrose [high-fat diet (HFD): 23.5% total fat, 9.83% saturated fat, 20% sucrose wt:wt] or a normal control diet [(CD) 7% total fat, 0.5% saturated fat, 10% sucrose wt:wt] for the 3 wk prior to mating and throughout pregnancy and lactation. Maternal weights were not different at conception; however, HFD-fed dams were 22% heavier than controls during pregnancy. On a normal diet, the male offspring of HFD-fed dams were not heavier than controls but demonstrated features of insulin resistance, including elevated plasma insulin concentration [40.1 ± 2.5 (CD) vs 56.2 ± 6.1 (HFD) mU/L; P = 0.023]. Next-generation mRNA sequencing was used to identify differentially expressed genes in the offspring soleus muscle, and gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) was used to detect coordinated changes that are characteristic of a biological function. GSEA identified 15 upregulated pathways, including cytokine signaling (P < 0.005), starch and sucrose metabolism (P < 0.017), inflammatory response (P < 0.024), and cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction (P < 0.037). A further 8 pathways were downregulated, including oxidative phosphorylation (P < 0.004), mitochondrial matrix (P < 0.006), and electron transport/uncoupling (P < 0.022). Phosphorylation of the insulin signaling protein kinase B was reduced [2.86 ± 0.63 (CD) vs 1.02 ± 0.27 (HFD); P = 0.027] and mitochondrial complexes I, II, and V protein were downregulated by 50-68% (P < 0.005). On a normal diet, the male offspring of HFD-fed dams did not become obese adults but developed insulin resistance, with transcriptional evidence of muscle cytokine activation, inflammation, and mitochondrial dysfunction. These data indicate that maternal overnutrition, even in the absence of prepregnancy obesity, can promote metabolic dysregulation and predispose offspring to type 2 diabetes.

The impact of maternal smoking during pregnancy on depressive and anxiety behaviors in children: the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: Maternal smoking during pregnancy (MSDP) is associated with multiple adverse childhood outcomes including externalizing behaviors. However, the association between MSDP and internalizing (anxiety and depressive) behaviors in offspring has received less investigation. We aimed to assess the association between MSDP and childhood internalizing (anxiety and depressive) behaviors in a very large, well-characterized cohort study. METHODS: We assessed the association between MSDP and internalizing behaviors in offspring utilizing information drawn from 90,040 mother-child pairs enrolled in the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study. Mothers reported smoking information, including status and frequency of smoking, twice during pregnancy. Mothers also reported their child's internalizing behaviors at 18 months, 36 months, and 5 years. Associations between MSDP and childhood internalizing behaviors, including dose-response and timing of smoking in pregnancy, were assessed at each time point. RESULTS: MSDP was associated with increased internalizing behaviors when offspring were aged 18 months (B = 0.11, P <0.001) and 36 months (B = 0.06, P <0.01), adjusting for numerous potential confounders. Higher rates of smoking (e.g., >20 cigarettes per day) were associated with higher levels of internalizing behaviors. Maternal smoking during early pregnancy appeared to be the critical period for exposure. CONCLUSIONS: We found evidence supporting a potential role for MSDP in increasing internalizing (anxiety and depressive) behaviors in offspring. We also found evidence supportive of a possible causal relationship, including dose-dependency and support for a predominant role of early pregnancy exposure. Further investigation utilizing genetically informed designs are warranted to assess this association.

Maternal obesity in females born small: pregnancy complications and offspring disease risk

Obesity is a major public health crisis, with 1.6 billion adults worldwide being classified as overweight or obese in 2014. Therefore, it is not surprising that the number of women who are overweight or obese at the time of conception is increasing. Obesity during pregnancy is associated with the development of gestational diabetes and preeclampsia. The developmental origins of health and disease hypothesis proposes that perturbations during critical stages of development can result in adverse fetal changes, which leads to an increased risk of developing diseases in adulthood. Of particular concern, children born to obese mothers are at a greater risk of developing cardiometabolic disease. One subset of the population who are predisposed to developing obesity are children born small for gestational age, which occurs in 10% of pregnancies worldwide. Epidemiological studies report that these growth restricted children have an increased susceptibility to type 2 diabetes, obesity and hypertension. Importantly during pregnancy, growth restricted females have a higher risk of developing cardiometabolic disease, indicating that they may have an exacerbated phenotype if they are also overweight or obese. Thus the development of early pregnancy interventions targeted to obese mothers may prevent their children from developing cardiometabolic disease in adulthood. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

The influence of sighing respirations on infant lung function measured using multiple breath washout gas mixing techniques

There is substantial interest in studying lung function in infants, to better understand the early life origins of chronic lung diseases such as asthma. Multiple breath washout (MBW) is a technique for measuring lung function that has been adapted for use in infants. Respiratory sighs occur frequently in young infants during natural sleep, and in accordance with current MBW guidelines, result in exclusion of data from a substantial proportion of testing cycles. We assessed how sighs during MBW influenced the measurements obtained using data from 767 tests conducted on 246 infants (50% male; mean age 43 days) as part of a large cohort study. Sighs occurred in 119 (15%) tests. Sighs during the main part of the wash-in phase (before the last 5 breaths) were not associated with differences in standard MBW measurements compared with tests without sighs. In contrast, sighs that occurred during the washout were associated with a small but discernible increase in magnitude and variability. For example, the mean lung clearance index increased by 0.36 (95% CI: 0.11-0.62) and variance increased by a multiplicative factor of 2 (95% CI: 1.6-2.5). The results suggest it is reasonable to include MBW data from testing cycles where a sigh occurs during the wash-in phase, but not during washout, of MBW. By recovering data that would otherwise have been excluded, we estimate a boost of about 10% to the final number of acceptable tests and 6% to the number of individuals successfully tested.

Dual-axis hormonal covariation in adolescence and the moderating influence of prior trauma and aversive maternal parenting

Adversity early in life can disrupt the functioning of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axes and increase risk for negative health outcomes. The interplay between these axes and the environment is complex, and understanding needs to be advanced by the investigation of the multiple hormonal relationships underlying these processes. The current study examined basal hormonal associations between morning levels of cortisol, testosterone, and dehydroepiandrosterone in a cohort of adolescents (mean age 15.56 years). The moderating influence of childhood adversity was also examined, as indexed by self-reported trauma (at mean age 14.91), and observed maternal aggressive parenting (at mean age 12.41). Between-person regressions revealed significant associations between hormones that were moderated by both measures of adversity. In females, all hormones positively covaried, but also interacted with adversity, such that positive covariation was typically only present when levels of trauma and/or aggressive parenting were low. In males, hormonal associations and interactions were less evident; however, interactions were detected for cortisol-testosterone - positively covarying at high levels of aggressive parenting but negatively covarying at low levels - and DHEA-cortisol - similarly positively covarying at high levels of parental aggression. These results demonstrate associations between adrenal and gonadal hormones and the moderating role of adversity, which is likely driven by feedback mechanisms, or cross-talk, between the axes. These findings suggest that hormonal changes may be the pathway through which early life adversity alters physiology and increases health risks, but does so differentially in the sexes; however further study is necessary to establish causation.

Maternal depressive and anxiety symptoms, self-esteem, body dissatisfaction and preschooler obesity: a cross-sectional study

The primary aim of the present study was to cross-sectionally examine the associations between maternal psychosocial variables, child feeding practices, and preschooler body mass index z-score (BMI-z) in children (aged 2–4 years). A secondary aim was to examine differences in child weight outcomes between mothers scoring above and below specified cut-offs on the psychosocial measures. Two hundred and ninety mother–child dyads were recruited from Melbourne, Australia, and completed questionnaires examining demographic information, mothers’ depressive and anxiety symptoms, self-esteem and body dissatisfaction, restrictive and pressure child feeding practices, and preschoolers’ BMI-z scores. Independent t-tests and hierarchical multiple regression were employed to analyse the data. In the final regression model, none of the maternal psychosocial measures or feeding practices predicted child BMI-z scores; maternal body mass index and employment status were the only predictors of preschooler BMI-z. However, independent t-tests revealed that children of mothers with elevated body dissatisfaction scores had significantly higher BMI-z scores than children of mothers without elevated scores. The results suggest that psychosocial variables are not related, cross-sectionally, to preschooler weight outcomes; however, further research is needed to replicate the group differences noted between mothers with and without body dissatisfaction, and to track these relationships longitudinally.

Predictors of postnatal mother-infant bonding: the role of antenatal bonding, maternal substance use and mental health

The emotional bond that a mother feels towards her baby is critical to social, emotional and cognitive development. Maternal health and wellbeing through pregnancy and antenatal bonding also play a key role in determining bonding postnatally, but the extent to which these relationships may be disrupted by poor mental health or substance use is unclear. This study aimed to examine the extent to which mother-fetal bonding, substance use and mental health through pregnancy predicted postnatal mother-infant bonding at 8 weeks. Participants were 372 women recruited from three metropolitan hospitals in Australia. Data was collected during trimesters one, two and three of pregnancy and 8 weeks postnatal using the Maternal Antenatal Attachment Scale (MAAS), Maternal Postnatal Attachment Scale (MPAS), the Edinburgh Antenatal and Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS), the Depression and Anxiety Scales (DASS-21), frequency and quantity of substance use (caffeine, alcohol and tobacco) as well as a range of demographic and postnatal information. Higher antenatal bonding predicted higher postnatal bonding at all pregnancy time-points in a fully adjusted regression model. Maternal depressive symptoms in trimesters two and three and stress in trimester two were inversely related to poorer mother-infant bonding 8 weeks postnatally. This study extends previous work on the mother’s felt bond to her developing child by drawing on a large sample of women and documenting the pattern of this bond at three time points in pregnancy and at 8 weeks postnatally. Utilising multiple antenatal waves allowed precision in isolating the relationships in pregnancy and at key intervention points. Investigating methods to enhance bonding and intervene in pregnancy is needed. It is also important to assess maternal mental health through pregnancy.