Is optimistic bias influenced by control or delay?

Optimistic bias is a commonly observed but poorly explained phenomenon. Our aim was to determine whether optimistic bias varied according to the nature of the event. Two event characteristics were explored: control and delay. A sample of 100 participants aged 18–30 years was randomly selected from the local residential telephone directory. Respondents were interviewed over the telephone. The highly structured interview schedule assessed respondents' perceptions of their own risk, and the risk of an average person of their age and sex for experiencing four negative life events: developing skin cancer, being involved in a serious car accident as the driver, being involved in a serious car accident as a passenger and having to wear a hearing aid. It also assessed respondents' perceptions of control and delay for each event. Data analysis using a repeated-measures MANOVA showed that optimistic bias occurred for all four events. Optimistic bias was significantly greater for the two events high in control (skin cancer and accident as the driver) than for those low in control (accident as a passenger and hearing aid). Delay was not related to the magnitude of optimistic bias. These findings have implications for health promotion campaigns and self-protective behaviors.

The reliability, validity, discriminant and predictive properties of the social Phobia Inventory (SoPhI)

This paper reports on the psychometric properties of the Social Phobic Inventory (SoPhI) a 21-item scale that was designed to measure social anxiety according to the criteria of DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association, APA (1994) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder , 4th Edn., Washington). Factor analysis of the SoPhI using data from a clinical sample of respondents with social phobia revealed one factor which explained approximately 59% of variance and which demonstrated strong internal reliability ( agr= 0.93). The SoPhI demonstrated concurrent validity with the SPAI ( r = 0.86) and convergent validity with the Fear of Negative Evaluations-Revised ( r = 0.68). The predictive utility of the scale was demonstrated in a sample of university students classified as extroverted, normal, shy/introverted, and phobic/withdrawn ( -2 57%). Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) revealed that the combined university sample differed from the clinical sample on the summated scores on the SoPhI and that 43% ( -2 ) of this difference was attributable to group membership. This figure rose to 58% attributable to group membership when these same groups were compared for differences on the 21 individual items. Scores of the SoPhI that are indicative of concern and of possible diagnostic criteria, as well as suggestions for future research, are discussed.

A comparative analysis of international education satisfaction using servqual

University education, the world over, has undergone significant transformation and reform with respect to higher education systems meeting the growing role of information and communication revolution, and the demand for knowledge, which represent the new challenges of globalisation. These challenges are seen as threats as well as opportunities for higher education systems around the world. The driving force of globalisation is competition and the international education market has become fiercely competitive with different marketing strategies being implemented by educational institutions to attract the growing number of students seeking higher education. The objective of this paper is to examine the relationship between the SERVQUAL constructs proposed by Parasuraman et al (1988 & 1985) and the country of origin and satisfaction among four cohorts of Asian international postgraduate students studying in Australian universities. Country of origin is recognized as an important predictor of satisfaction and choice in the international education environment. The data used in this study is derived from a mail survey conducted among international postgraduate students from China, India, Indonesia and Thailand studying in five universities in Victoria, Australia. An adapted version of the SERVQUAL instrument was used to collect the data and was designed to measure the gap between student responses on expectations and perceptions of the university as a study destination on a seven point bi-polar scale. The responses were sought on 36 statements representing aspects of the operations and services of the university under desired (ideal) expectations of choice and post-choice perceptions. Scales were developed to investigate the relationship between the SERVQUAL constructs of reliability, responsiveness, assurance, empathy and tangibles and the country of origin and were shown to be reliable. Using ANOVA and MANOVA techniques, the study found significant differences between country of origin and the SERVQUAL constructs and discusses strategic implications and opportunities for higher
educational institutions

Effects of a holistic health program on women's physical activity and mental and spiritual health

Intervention studies aimed at promoting increased physical activity have been trialled in many different settings including primary care, worksites and the community. Churches are also potential settings for physical activity promotion. However, little is known about the effectiveness of this setting for promoting physical activity, particularly in Australia. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a mind, body and spiritually based health promotion program in increasing physical activity and promoting mental and spiritual health. Nineteen women completed the 8-week intervention, and 30 women in a non-health related 8-week program at the same church comprised a comparison group. Pre- and post-program surveys assessed outcome measures. Between-group differences over time were examined using one-way MANOVA's. Physical activity was higher in the intervention group than the comparison group. In contrast to the comparison group, both mental health (depression symptoms) and spiritual health improved significantly more among intervention participants. The data highlight the potential for a church-based setting and holistic approach to health promotion as a successful means of increasing physical activity and promoting mental and spiritual health among Australian women.

The relevance of demographic variables in assessing student satisfaction: a study of international postgraduate students

Servicing an increasingly diverse international student community in the globally competitive education market is a challenge faced by Australian universities. Market forecasts indicate a seven-fold increase in the number of students seeking higher education overseas by 2025 (Bohm et al, 2002) and with the growing diversity and competitiveness of the industry, universities will need to focus on factors influencing student satisfaction to improve service quality where required.

This paper, using logistic regression, ANOVA, and MANOVA, investigates the influence of country, age and gender with regard to satisfaction among international postgraduate students from four Asian countries studying in universities in Victoria. The results indicate that there is an inverse relationship between age and satisfaction among postgraduate students while the gender of the students does not have an impact on satisfaction, and that significant differences are evident between the four countries investigated with respect to the levels of satisfaction.

Personal values of international postgraduate students from Asia : a cross cultural study

Australian universities face a challenging task to service an increasingly diverse international student community in the globally competitive education market. The pressure on universities to successfully negotiate cultural diversity arising from nationality differences and to improve service quality will continue to increase with further expansions in the international student market. Such a scenario requires insights into the individual backgrounds of students. Personal values are one way in which insights can be gained of students, particularly with regard to their needs and preferences. Using Factor Analysis, ANOVA and MANOVA, this study analyses the national differences on the basis of underlying value domains of Selfefficacy, Power, Inner harmony, Aspiration and Hedonism. The results indicate significant differences in personal values amongst the student cohorts, which suggest that universities may need to adopt different approaches in servicing international students.

The role of benchmarking and service level agreement (SLA) practices in IT outsourcing success

Despite claims in the trade literature that a number of recommended practices have been proved to lead to IT outsourcing success, few of these practices have been subject to disconfirmatory research. Even fewer have been tested statistically to determine whether they generalize to wider populations, or to determine the magnitude of their effect. In this paper, several recommended outsourcing practices associated with service level agreements (SLAs) and benchmarking are investigated. These practices are recommended extensively on the basis of case study research, yet they do have downsides, and they add substantially to the transaction costs of outsourcing. Based on a large survey of organizations engaged in IT outsourcing, this paper established that developing detailed SLAs did improve cost and service outcome, and that clients who met with vendors more frequently to renegotiate service levels reported greater outsourcing success. The research also established that benchmarking both before outsourcing commences, and once the outsourcing contract is in place, led to improvements in cost and service outcomes. Benchmarking during the outsourcing contract had the greatest effect, accounting for 10% of the variance in a success vector that included strategic, technical, cost-related and service outcomes plus an overall evaluation of satisfaction and value.

The impact of chronic illness on relationships in early adulthood: a comparison study between healthy and arthritic young adults

While engaging in romantic relationships is regarded as a normative task during young adulthood, non-normative life events such as the emergence of chronic illness can mitigate against the successful negotiation of such tasks. Chronic illness brings with it a series of additional challenges and stressors to the realm of personal relationships that are thought to interrupt the development of normative interpersonal and intra-individual processes. However, few studies have examined how young adults faced with a chronic illness such as arthritis navigate romantic relationships and the consequences of illness and relationships on psychological adjustment. The aim of the study was to compare the relationship experiences of healthy young adults with those faced with arthritis. One hundred and nine young adults (M 23.01 years, SD 2.43) took part in the study. Of these participants 41 had been diagnosed with arthritis. A univariate MANOVA revealed arthritic young adults reported significantly more insecure attachment, lower levels of readiness for intimacy, and poorer relationship satisfaction compared to healthy young adults. Further correlational and regression analyses on the arthritic sample revealed psychological adjustment was related to arthritis severity, attachment and components of coping. Findings will be discussed in relation to attachment theory and coping processes.

Self-perceived quality of life of children and adolescents with physical disabilities in Hong Kong

Although illnesses and diseases are thought to adversely affect quality of life (QoL), whether children who have physical disabilities (PD) from a young age adapt to the effect of developmental disabilities has rarely been investigated. This study attempted to assess the subjective wellbeing, and examine the correlation between objective and subjective QoL, of children with PD. Using a self-reported non-disease-specific questionnaire, the QoL of 72 young persons (13.5 ± 2.0 years) with PD was contrasted with those who do not have disabilities (n = 510; age-matched). MANOVA analyses revealed that the PD group had lower objective QoL score (63.0 ± 7.4 vs. 66.8 ± 5.7, p < 0.001) but the two groups were not significantly different in subjective QoL score (70.9 ± 11.4 vs. 69.6 ± 13.6, p = 0.466). No correlation was found between objective and subjective QoL in the PD group (r ranged from 0.06 to 0.19), while weak to medium correlations (r ranged from 0.03 to 0.41) were observed for the controls. The apparent detachment of subjective feeling and objective circumstances in the PD group may reflect adjustment to developmental disabilities.

Self-determination theory and needs satisfaction in marketing education : are we meeting the needs of students in large marketing classes?

The aim of this study is to assess whether universities are meeting the needs of students in large marketing classes. In so doing the study investigates the application of self determination theory and psychological needs satisfaction. The basic needs scale, comprising of three constructs; Control, Competence and Caring was adapted and used to evaluate students’ perception of an introductory marketing subject. The study used a multi-method approach consisting of a literature review, a qualitative phase involving in-depth interviews with marketing teaching staff and focus groups with marketing students and a survey of students about introductory level marketing. An adapted version of the basic psychological needs scale was included in a questionnaire that was administered to a convenience sample of 366 students. MANOVA, ANOVA and descriptive statistics were used to analyse the data. The results show that the psychological needs satisfaction of many students are not being fully realised. It was also found that marketing degree students enjoyed the challenges and were more stimulated by the subject. The higher achieving students enjoyed the challenge of the subject more than the lower achieving students. As a result of this study, there are three suggestions for further research. Firstly, further study should compare subjects, with relatively small enrolments, to those with large enrolments to corroborate the value of this method of assessing student satisfaction. Secondly, the use of a larger sample across other universities would confirm whether these findings hold for other institutions. Finally, it is suggested that a structural model should be developed to extend this investigation of student satisfaction and the constructs used in the study.

What do they think when we stack them in? A comparative analysis of student perceptions relating to large and small marketing subjects

University education is in a period of flux with emphasis being focused on quality education, competition for students both local and international as well as changes in governmental financial support and direction. It is with this scenario as a backdrop, that universities in an endeavour to obtain economies of scale offer subjects with large student enrolments. This study investigates marketing students’ perception of and participation in marketing subjects relating to teaching quality, staff availability and support, and individual student involvement in marketing education with large enrolments compared to subjects with small enrolments. This research builds on the investigations of effects of class size by Cuseo (2004) and Binney et al (2004). The study used a multi-method approach. Data from a sample of 621 students was analysed using Factor analysis, MANOVA and ANOVA. Students indicated that there was little difference in the quality of learning obtained in small or large classes. Of interest from a marketing perspective, however, is the perception by students that they are more likely to obtain practical assistance and support from tutors in smaller classes. Student perceptions generally show no major differences between large and small classes in relation to subject selection, ability to learn and lecture  attendance. Students expressed a preference for the opportunity to choose from a number of lecture streams available in subjects with large enrolments. Of interest, however is the student belief that they are less likely to actively participate in large lectures than in small lecture environments.

The impact of consumer ethnocentrism and country of origin sub-components for high involvement products on young Chinese consumers' product assessments

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine the effect of country of origin (COO) sub-components (i.e. design, assembly and parts), as well as the extent to which consumer ethnocentrism tendencies interact with these COO sub-components for young Chinese consumers with regards to product quality assessments and purchase intentions.

Design/methodology/approach – A 2?×?2?×?2 factorial experimental design was used to examine the effects of the three sub-components of COO with two levels of sourcing location – Home (China) and Foreign (Germany), for two high involvement products (an automobile and a digital camera). Chinese students in China represented the sample of 272 respondents. MANOVA was used to examine the direct effects and interactions of the three COO components, as well as ethnocentrism, measured using the CETSCALE.

Findings – It was found that the three COO sub-components did not influence young Chinese consumers’ evaluation of product quality or purchase intentions. In addition, consumers’ level of ethnocentrism also did not have a direct effect on perceived product quality or purchase intentions. There was only one statistically significant interaction effect between ethnocentrism and country of parts for one of the two products. As such, COO dimensions and young Chinese consumers’ ethnocentrism appears to have limited influence on their assessments of product quality or purchase intentions. This may occur because young Chinese consumers perceive that hybrid products are the norm for high involvement products in China as these products are all these consumers have experienced.

Originality/value – The findings of this research dispute the commonly held belief and evidence that sub-components of COO have an impact on the perceptions of product quality and purchase intentions. Young Chinese consumers may be different to consumers from western countries because they have been extensively exposed to hybrid products. Given the size and growth potential of China, young Chinese are an important, under-researched segment within the Chinese market.

An empirical model of international student satisfaction

Purpose – Based on the theoretical framework of expectancy-disconfirmation paradigm, the purpose of this paper is to examine the differences in student perceptions of the level of satisfaction related to educational and non-educational services among four groups of international postgraduate business students from China, India, Indonesia and Thailand undertaking study in Australia.

Design/methodology/approach – The data used in this study were derived from a mail survey conducted among international postgraduate business students from Asia studying at five universities in the state of Victoria, Australia. A total of 573 usable responses were received. Analysis using structural equation modelling, multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and analysis of variance (ANOVA) was undertaken.

Findings – This study develops and tests a model of international postgraduate student satisfaction. Findings indicate that the importance of service quality factors related to both educational and non-educational services varies among nationality groups and, therefore, has a differential impact on student satisfaction.

Practical implications – The study provides insights into seven constructs related to educational and non-educational services that are perceived as important by postgraduate business students from Asia in satisfaction formation. Universities should develop a diversified strategic marketing plan that incorporates the differential needs of international postgraduate business students according to the educational and non-educational constructs developed in this paper.

Originality/value – This study makes a contribution by filling a void in academic research in the area of satisfaction in relation to postgraduate international business students from four nationality groups in Asia.

Effects of invertebrate predators and a pesticide on temporary pond microcosms used for aquatic toxicity testing

The effects of increased trophic complexity, through the addition of predatory notonectids (Anisops deanei), on temporary pond microcosms used for aquatic toxicity testing were studied. Replicate microcosms were established using sediment from a dried temporary pond, and treated with one of four concentrations of the organochlorine pesticide endosulfan (0, 1, 10 or 50 μg/L), in the presence or absence of six A. deanei. The tanks were sampled regularly for nine weeks following the addition of the predators and the entire contents of each tank counted after 12 weeks. Analysis using non-metric multidimensional scaling (MDS) and non-parametric MANOVA showed that both Anisops and endosulfan at concentrations >10 μg/L significantly altered community structure. However, an interaction between the effects of Anisops and the effects of endosulfan was not detected. The addition of Anisops did not increase the variability of response and thus did not reduce the sensitivity of the test method.

Reliability of isokinetic strength and aerobic power testing for patients with chronic heart failure

PURPOSE: The objective of this study was to assess the reliability of testing skeletal muscle strength and peak aerobic power in a clinical population of patients with chronic heart failure (CHF).

METHODS: Thirty-three patients with CHF (New York Heart Association (NYHA) Functional Class 2.3 ± 0.5; left ventricular ejection fraction 27% ± 7%; age 65 ± 9 years; 28:5 male-female ratio) underwent two identical series of tests (T1 and T2), 1 week apart, for strength and endurance of the muscle groups responsible for knee extension/flexion and elbow extension/flexion. The patients also underwent two graded exercise tests on a bicycle ergometer to measure peak oxygen consumption (VO_2peak). Three months later, 18 of the patients underwent a third test (T3) for each of the measures. Means were compared using MANOVA with repeated measures for strength and endurance, and ANOVA with repeated measures for VO_2peak.

RESULTS: Combining data for all four movement patterns, the expression of strength increased from T1 to T2 by 12% ± 25% (P < .001; intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC] = 0.89). Correspondingly, endurance increased by 13% ± 23% (P = .004; ICC = 0.87). Peak oxygen consumption was not significantly different (16.2 ± 0.8 and 16.1 ± 0.8 mL·kg^-1·min^-1 for T1 and T2, respectively;P = .686; ICC = 0.91). There were no significant differences between T2 and T3 for strength (2% ± 17%;P = .736; ICC = 0.92) or muscle endurance (-1% ± 15%;P = .812; ICC = 0.96), but VO_2peak decreased from 16.7 ± 1.2 to 14.9 ± 0.9 mL·kg^-1·min^-1 (-10% ± 18%;P = .021; ICC = 0.89).

CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that in a population of patients with CHF, a familiarization trial for skeletal muscle strength testing is necessary. Although familiarization is not required for assessing oxygen consumption as a single measurement, VO_2peak declined markedly in the 3-month period for which these patients were followed. Internal consistency within patients was high for the second and third strength trials and the first and second tests of VO_2peak.