Development of a reliable measure of walking within and outside the local neighbourhood: RESIDE's neighborhood physical activity questionnarire.

Background: The RESIDential Environment project (RESIDE) is a longitudinal study evaluating the impact of a new residential design code on walking. Objective: To develop a reliable measure of walking – undertaken within and outside the neighborhood – and overall physical activity. Methods: A test–retest reliability study was undertaken (n = 82, mean age 39 years). The instrument was based on the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ-short version) and Active Australia Survey. It measured usual frequency and duration of (1) recreational- and transport-related walking within and outside the neighborhood and (2) other vigorous and moderate physical activities. Results: Reliability of recall of whether participants had walked within (k = 0.84) and outside (0.73) the neighborhood was acceptable. Similarly, recall of frequency and duration of transport and recreational-related walking within the neighborhood was excellent (ICC ≥ 0.82), as was recall of transport-related walking trips outside the neighborhood (ICC ≥ 0.84). Reliability for duration of recreational walking outside the neighborhood was fair to good (ICC = 0.55). The reliability of indices of total physical activity based on MET min/week (ICC = 0.82) and MET min/week dichotomized to ‘sufficient’ physical activity for health (kappa = 0.67) were both acceptable. Conclusions:  The Neighborhood Physical Activity Questionnaire (NPAQ) is sufficiently reliable for studies examining environmental correlates of walking within the neighborhood.

Active learning: the importance of developing a comprehensive measure

This article reports on an investigation into the validity of a widely used scale for measuring the extent to which higher education students employ active learning strategies. The scale is the active learning scale in the Australasian Survey of Student Engagement. This scale is based on the Active and Collaborative Learning scale of the National Survey of Student Engagement. The particular focus of the study was to investigate effects resulting from the addition of a small number of items to the active learning scale designed to capture some highly engaging, mostly online, activities. The items were developed in response to concerns that students studying in distance mode often report lower average scores on active learning scales than their on-campus counterparts. The additional items relate to activities such as working online with other students and faculty. The findings show that average scores on the Australasian Survey of Student Engagement/National Survey of Student Engagement scale increase significantly when the new items are included and that some differences between on-campus and distance education students narrow significantly. These findings have implications for the development of more robust and comprehensive instruments to measure active learning.

The importance of first-time parent groups for new parents

First-time parent groups are offered to all new parents in Victoria, Australia through the Maternal and Child Health Service, which is funded by state and local governments. Parents who join a group attend a series of eight sessions that emphasize parenting skills, relationship development and social support in order to increase confidence and skills in parenting. The present paper highlights the importance of first-time parent groups, claiming that these groups serve an important social support and health function amid a climate of early discharge policies and changing family structures. Although there are a number of challenges to the successful running of groups, it is argued that first-time parents benefit from participating in these groups in a number of ways: by developing social networks, gaining self confidence, and through access to relevant information on child health and parenting. Research indicates that first-time parent groups provide lasting benefits not only for families, but also for society as a whole. Maternal and child health nurses play a key role in facilitating groups for first-time parents.

The role of local grouping and global orientation contrast in perception of orientation-modulated textures

We explored the contribution to perception of orientation-modulated textures of visual processes selective either for orientation contrast or orientation grouping. To distinguish between these two processes we manipulated the axis of local grouping of texture elements independently of the direction of global orientation modulation. The general question posed was whether visibility of texture structure (measured as threshold for discriminating spatial-frequency of texture structure) is dependent on the magnitude of orientation contrast, strength and direction of local grouping, or some combination of the two. We demonstrated that the factor of primary importance is the amplitude of global orientation contrast rather than the presence of local grouping content. Using orientation-interleaved textures (containing two superimposed textures modulated around orthogonal orientations), we further showed that orientation single-opponent processes are a more likely candidate for detecting orientation contrast than double-opponent processes.

Walkability of local communities: using geographic information systems to objectively assess relevant environmental attributes.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) can be used to objectively measure features of the built environment that may influence adults’ physical activity, which is an important determinant of chronic disease. We describe how a previously developed index of walkability was operationalised in an Australian context, using available spatial data. The index was used to generate a stratified sampling frame for the selection of households from 32 communities for the PLACE (Physical Activity in Localities and Community Environments) study. GIS data have the potential to be used to construct measures of environmental attributes and to develop indices of walkability for cities, regions or local communities.

Local total and radiative heat-transfer coefficients during the heat treatment of a workpiece in a fluidised bed

The heat-transfer coefficients around a workpiece immersed in an electrically heated heat treatment fluidised bed were studied. A suspension probe designed to simulate a workpiece of complex geometry was developed to measure local total and radiative heat-transfer coefficients at a high bed temperature. The probe consisted of an energy-storage region separated by insulation from the fluidised bed, except for the measuring surface, and a multi-thermocouple measurement system. Experiments in the fluidised bed were performed for a fluidising medium of 120-mesh alumina, a wide temperature range of 110–1050 °C and a fluidising number range of 1.18–4.24. It was found that the workpiece surface temperature has a more significant effect on heat transfer than the bed temperature. The total heat-transfer coefficient at the upper surface of the workpiece sharply decreased at the start of heating, and then steadily increased as heating progressed, while a sharp decrease became a rapid increase and then a slow increase for the radiative heat-transfer coefficient. A great difference in the heat-transfer coefficients around the workpiece was observed.

The relationship between national income and health : a new measure applied to Bangkok

The importance of good health of a population is crucial when determining social welfare. A new health-adjusted national income indicator that explores the relationships between economic growth, health and social welfare in Bangkok, Thailand from 1975 to 1999 is applied. This new approach to social welfare analysis is based on normative social choice theory, cost–benefit and systems analysis and is called (new)3 welfare economics. This paper argues that traditional measures of welfare, such as national income, fail to reflect accurately the impact of health on social welfare.

The determination of the local conditions for void initiation in front of a crack tip for materials with second-phase particles

A procedure is proposed to determine, for second-phase particles near a crack tip, the maximum particle stresses at the moment of void initiation by either particle fracture or particle/matrix interface separation. A digital image analysis system is applied to perform a quantitative analysis of corresponding fracture surface regions from stereo image pairs taken in the scanning electron microscope. The fracture surface analysis is used to measure, for individual particles, the crack tip opening displacement at the moment of void initiation and the particle location with respect to the crack tip. From these data, the stress tensor at the moment of void initiation is calculated from the Hutchinson–Rice–Rosengren (HRR) field theory. The corresponding average local stresses within the particle are evaluated by a non-linear Mori–Tanaka-type approach. These stresses are compared to estimates according to the models by Argon et al. [A.S. Argon, J. Im, R. Safoglu, Metall. Trans. 6 (1975) 825] and Beremin [F.M. Beremin, Metall. Trans. 12 (1981) 723]. The procedure is demonstrated on an Al6061–10% Al2O3 metal matrix composite.

A measure of 'high commitment organisation' performance values in sport management professionals and sport organisations

Many organizations have realized the growing importance of adopting a 'High Commitment Organization' (HCO) approach with a focus on shared values to assist them in meeting their competitive challenges. A survey questionnaire based on the McDonald and Gandz (1992) list of values, employing confirmatory and principal components analyses was used to create scales to (a) explore the importance the sport management professional placed on those values, (b) explore the individual's perception of the importance placed on those values by their employing organization, (c) to compare these hierarchies with the values of the HCO, and (d) to measure the extent of value congruence. Three clear sets of values emerged: Development / Adhocracy (D/A) Values, Humanistic / Clan (H/C) Values and Conformity / Hierarchy (C/H) Values. Findings indicate significant differences between sport management professionals' values and those of their organizations. Employees placed higher importance on (D/A) and (H/C) Values than their organizations, while Sport organizations placed higher importance on (C/H) Values than their employees. There is stronger support by individuals than organizations for the values underpinning the HCO approach. These levels of individual - organizational value incongruence have implications for individual job satisfaction, motivation and organizational effectiveness.

Objectively assessing "Walkability" of local communities: using GIS to identify the relevant environmental attributes.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) may be used to measure objectively, those features of the built environment that may influence walking. Public health research on environmental determinants of physical activity in adults shows that different factors can influence walking for recreation, compared to walking for transport. Most studies have used perceived (self-report) rather than objective measures of potentially relevant environmental attributes. We describe how a previously-developed index of ‘walkability’ was operationalized in an Australian context, using available spatial data.               Attributes believed to be of relevance to walking for transport, that are measurable using GIS, are: Dwelling density (higher-density neighborhoods support greater retail and service variety, resulting in shorter, walkable distances between facilities; driving and parking are more difficult and time consuming). Connectivity (higher intersection densities provide people with a greater variety of potential routes, easier access to major roads where public transport is available and shorter times to get to destinations). Land use mix (the more varied the land use mix and built form, then the more conducive it is to walk to various destinations). Net retail area (there are more options for destinations where goods and services may be purchased and more local employment opportunities that can be reached by walking). The associations of these attributes with walking behaviors can be  examined separately, or in combination. Such GIS data are very helpful in fundamental studies of the environmental determinants of behavior, and also in applied policy research for cities, regions or local communities, to
address public health and environmental issues.

Local health policy development processes in the Netherlands: an expanded toolbox for health promotion

Although much research has been done on the existence and formation of risk and issue based health policies, there is only little insight in health policy development processes in a broader context. This hampers intervention in these policy processes to adequately develop integrated and effective health policies.

Legislation in the Netherlands requires municipalities to develop and implement local health policies. These policies are supposed to aim at the promotion of health across sectors and with a strong community involvement. Health policy development processes have been studied in four Dutch municipalities. For each case, we identified a range of stakeholders and monitored the change or stability of their characteristics over 3 years. In addition, for each case, three overlaying maps of networks were made addressing communication and collaboration actions within the defined set of stakeholders. We point out a number of barriers which impede integrated policy development at the local level: the importance given to local health policy, the medical approach to health development, the organizational self-interest rather than public health concern, the absence of policy entrepreneurial activity.

Furthermore, this article advocates the use of complementary theoretical frameworks and the expansion of the methodological toolbox for health promotion. The value of stakeholder and network analysis in the health promotion domain, at this stage, is two-fold. First, mapping relevant actors, their positions and connections in networks provides us with insight into their capacity to participate and contribute to health policy development. Second, these new tools contribute to a further understanding of policy entrepreneurial roles to be taken up by health promotion professionals and health authorities in favour of the socio-environmental approach to health.

Notwithstanding the value of this first step, more research is required into both the practical application as well as in the theoretical connections with, for example, Multiple Streams theory.

People, places and public health : evaluating the benefits of civic environmentalism in an urban local government context

Recent political, economic and social trends pose threats to the sustainability both of ecosystems and of human health. Australia’s environmental management record is poor, and while by international standards Australians enjoy good health, this is variable (AIHW, 2000). Within developed nations, heart disease, depression, alcohol dependence and stroke are major health issues (Mathers et al. 2002). In Australia, mental disorder is the number one contributor to the disease burden (Vos & Mathers 2000). Recent research has highlighted the role of social capital as a key determinant of health (Kawachi et al., 1997). Despite this, Putnam (1995) observes that social connectedness and civic engagement are in decline. People have less time for leisure and for volunteering, as many juggle paid work and caring for children. Anecdotal evidence suggests that engagement in civic environmentalism has human health benefits, relating to a combination of exposure to natural environments and increased social capital (Maller, Brown, Townsend & St. Leger, 2002). This link is supported by Furnass (1996) who defines well-being as including: satisfactory human relationships, meaningful occupation, opportunities for contact with nature, creative expression, and making a positive contribution to human society. Research conducted by Deakin University confirms the efficacy of linking people and places through civic environmentalism for addressing both ecosystem sustainability and human health and wellbeing. The research has included a pilot study to explore the human health benefits of membership of a local parkland ‘Friends’ group, and a more detailed follow-up study. The aims of the pilot study included:- To identify the range of motivations for joining the Friends group;- To document members’ perceptions of the benefits gained from membership of the group;- To assess the potential for Friends groups to be used as an ‘upstream’ health promotion measure.Face-to-face interviews were conducted with eleven members of a ‘Friends’ group in the eastern suburbs of Melbourne. Data was analysed thematically and key findings included:- Motivations: environmental; social; and pragmatic.- General benefits: community belonging; personal satisfaction; learning opportunities; physical activity; and better environment.- Health benefits: physical health; mental health; and social support. There was unanimous support for the use of ‘Friends’ groups as a tool for health promotion.The follow-up study, in the western suburbs of Melbourne, expanded on the pilot study by measuring the group’s social capital and by collecting self-report data on levels of health service usage. Data was collected through face-to-face interviews and a questionnaire. The findings were similar to the pilot study in relation to the motivations, benefits and the health promotion potential of such groups. However, health service usage data highlighted an apparent anomaly: while respondents perceived significant health benefits, some were nevertheless utilising health services at a relatively high level. This poses some questions requiring further exploration: Is this due to the poorer baseline health of the high health service usage members compared with their fellow members? Does involvement in the group offer health benefits that enable people who would otherwise be too unhealthy to participate in community groups to continue such involvement?If this is the case, then we may do well to look to locally-based mechanisms for promoting ecological sustainability as a tool also for promoting human health. Instead of prescribing a pill, connecting people and places through engagement with a local friends group may address our health problems at the same time as addressing local environmental problems.

Measuring the walkability of local communities using geographic information systems data

Researchers are working to identify and promote environment and policy initiatives to encourage more active and healthy communities. Measuring environmental attributes through objective means can verify which physical environment factors are most important. We describe how Geographic Information Systems (GIS) may be used to measure objectively, the features of the built environment that may influence walking. We show how four key attributes currently believed to be of most relevance to walking for transport may be used to create a ‘walkability’ index. These are dwelling density (higher-density neighbourhoods support greater retail and service variety, resulting in shorter, walkable distances between facilities; driving and parking are more difficult); street connectivity (higher intersection density provides people with a greater choice of potential routes, easier access to major roads where public transport is available and shorter times to get to destinations); land use mix (the more varied the land use mix and built form, the more conducive it is to walk to various destinations); and net retail area (people who live near multiple and diverse retail opportunities are able to make more frequent and shorter shopping trips by walking and can walk to more local employment opportunities). The potential relationships between each of the objective environmental-attribute measures and walking behaviours is discussed, together with suggestions as to how such measures might be used to guide community infrastructure planning. GIS mapping can assist decision makers in where to focus transportation investments and where to guide future growth. Readily accessible GIS data can be used to guide and support urban planning and infrastructure investment decisions in both the private and public sectors, to increase walking in communities.

Challenges facing housing affordability in Beijing in the Twenty-first century

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is analyse to what extent the high price had led to low levels of housing affordability in the period 2002-2006 in Beijing. Due to the importance of housing for local residents and the crucial position that real estate market in the Chinese economy is currently in, research into the housing affordability issues is now essential. It is important to consider the social circumstances that are predominantly related to both the standard of living and the national economy in Beijing.

Design/methodology/approach – The housing price to income ratio (PIR) method and Housing Affordability Index (HAI) model are used to measure housing affordability in Beijing. Then, the reasons for the high housing prices in Beijing are discussed and government homeownership-oriented policies to help citizen on housing issues are examined. Finally, future proposals which can contribute to ease the housing affordability problem are recommended.

Findings – The main findings in this research are that the PIR in the Beijing housing market (based on an average gross floor area of 60?m2) fluctuated between 6.69 and 9.12, respectively, between 2002 and 2006. Over the same period, the HAI was approximately 75 between 2002 and 2004, although decreasing sharply in 2005 (65.78) and 2006 (51.33). It appears that the Chinese government's new housing provision policies may be able to ease this affordability problem, especially with regards to the economic housing scheme.

Originality/value – China has experienced rapid growth in gross domestic product (GDP) with a substantial increase in house prices which have affected housing affordability for typical Beijing households. Since the housing reform in China commenced in 1998, Beijing residents, government officers and academics have been concerned about high housing prices in the city, which is considered beyond the buying capability of the ordinary residents. The results are designed to provide an insight into the level of housing affordability in Beijing and whether a trend exists.

Parent's views of the importance of making changes in settings where children spend time to prevent obesity

Aim : To examine the kinds of changes parents would like to see in those settings where children spend time (kindergartens and schools, child care centres and after-school care facilities, and the local neighbourhood) in policies and practices that impact on children’s risk of obesity, and to establish whether parents might be willing to advocate for changes in these settings.

Materials and Methods : 175 parents from five randomly selected primary schools and five randomly selected kindergartens located in suburbs of metropolitan Melbourne completed a questionnaire in which they rated the importance of a number of potential changes to promote healthy eating and increase physical activity in their children.

Results : Parents of children in kindergarten most commonly rated changes to the eating environment as important. In contrast, parents of primary school children believed changes related to both eating and physical activity in school were important. Ninety-five per cent of parents of kindergarten children and 89% of parents of primary school children believed it was possible for parents to bring about change to provide more opportunities for their child to eat more healthily and be more physically active. One in four parents reported that they had thought about or had tried to bring about changes in their community.

Conclusions : The findings suggest that mobilising parents to take an active role in advocating for change in those settings that have the potential to shape their children’s physical activity and eating behaviours may be feasible.