Instructional strategies integrating cognitive style construct : a meta-knowledge processing model

The overarching goal of this dissertation was to evaluate the contextual components of instructional strategies for the acquisition of complex programming concepts. A meta-knowledge processing model is proposed, on the basis of the research findings, thereby facilitating the selection of media treatment for electronic courseware. When implemented, this model extends the work of Smith (1998), as a front-end methodology, for his glass-box interpreter called Bradman, for teaching novice programmers. Technology now provides the means to produce individualized instructional packages with relative ease. Multimedia and Web courseware development accentuate a highly graphical (or visual) approach to instructional formats. Typically, little consideration is given to the effectiveness of screen-based visual stimuli, and curiously, students are expected to be visually literate, despite the complexity of human-computer interaction. Visual literacy is much harder for some people to acquire than for others! (see Chapter Four: Conditions-of-the-Learner) An innovative research programme was devised to investigate the interactive effect of instructional strategies, enhanced with text-plus-textual metaphors or text-plus-graphical metaphors, and cognitive style, on the acquisition of a special category of abstract (process) programming concept. This type of concept was chosen to focus on the role of analogic knowledge involved in computer programming. The results are discussed within the context of the internal/external exchange process, drawing on Ritchey's (1980) concepts of within-item and between-item encoding elaborations. The methodology developed for the doctoral project integrates earlier research knowledge in a novel, interdisciplinary, conceptual framework, including: from instructional science in the USA, for the concept learning models; British cognitive psychology and human memory research, for defining the cognitive style construct; and Australian educational research, to provide the measurement tools for instructional outcomes. The experimental design consisted of a screening test to determine cognitive style, a pretest to determine prior domain knowledge in abstract programming knowledge elements, the instruction period, and a post-test to measure improved performance. This research design provides a three-level discovery process to articulate: 1) the fusion of strategic knowledge required by the novice learner for dealing with contexts within instructional strategies 2) acquisition of knowledge using measurable instructional outcome and learner characteristics 3) knowledge of the innate environmental factors which influence the instructional outcomes This research has successfully identified the interactive effect of instructional strategy, within an individual's cognitive style construct, in their acquisition of complex programming concepts. However, the significance of the three-level discovery process lies in the scope of the methodology to inform the design of a meta-knowledge processing model for instructional science. Firstly, the British cognitive style testing procedure, is a low cost, user friendly, computer application that effectively measures an individual's position on the two cognitive style continua (Riding & Cheema,1991). Secondly, the QUEST Interactive Test Analysis System (Izard,1995), allows for a probabilistic determination of an individual's knowledge level, relative to other participants, and relative to test-item difficulties. Test-items can be related to skill levels, and consequently, can be used by instructional scientists to measure knowledge acquisition. Finally, an Effect Size Analysis (Cohen,1977) allows for a direct comparison between treatment groups, giving a statistical measurement of how large an effect the independent variables have on the dependent outcomes. Combined with QUEST's hierarchical positioning of participants, this tool can assist in identifying preferred learning conditions for the evaluation of treatment groups. By combining these three assessment analysis tools into instructional research, a computerized learning shell, customised for individuals' cognitive constructs can be created (McKay & Garner,1999). While this approach has widespread application, individual researchers/trainers would nonetheless, need to validate with an extensive pilot study programme (McKay,1999a; McKay,1999b), the interactive effects within their specific learning domain. Furthermore, the instructional material does not need to be limited to a textual/graphical comparison, but could be applied to any two or more instructional treatments of any kind. For instance: a structured versus exploratory strategy. The possibilities and combinations are believed to be endless, provided the focus is maintained on linking of the front-end identification of cognitive style with an improved performance outcome. My in-depth analysis provides a better understanding of the interactive effects of the cognitive style construct and instructional format on the acquisition of abstract concepts, involving spatial relations and logical reasoning. In providing the basis for a meta-knowledge processing model, this research is expected to be of interest to educators, cognitive psychologists, communications engineers and computer scientists specialising in computer-human interactions.

A behavioural analysis of enforced delays in computerised programmed instruction

To evaluate the putative advantages of student self pacing in automated instruction,the studies in this thesis compare the effects of self-paced, and externally-paced, programmed instruction on student accuracy, retention, efficiency, and satisfaction. The results of the experiments show that self-pacing reduced accuracy, retention, and workrates compared to external pacing and indicated that learners often make poor choices about optimum learning conditions. They also show that small changes in the learning environment can result in consistent and substantial changes in learner performance, and that behaviour analysts have an important role to play in the design and implementation of instructional material.

Becoming numerate with information and communications technologies in the twenty-first century

This article draws on data from a three-year Australian Research Council-funded study that examined the ways in which young children become numerate in the twenty-first century. We were interested in the authentic problem-solving contexts that we believe are required to create meaningful learning. This being so, our basic tenet was that such experiences should involve the use of information and communications technologies (ICT) where relevant, but not in tokenistic ways. This article highlights learning conditions in which young children can become numerate in contemporary times. We consider ‘academic’ or ‘school-based’ mathematical tasks in the context of a Mathematical Tasks Continuum. This continuum was conceptualised to enable focused and detailed thinking about the scope and range of mathematical tasks that young children are able to engage within contemporary school contexts. The data from this study show that most of the tasks the children experienced in early years mathematics classes were unidimensional in their make up. That is, they focus on the acquisition of specific skills and then they are practiced in disembedded contexts. We suggest that the framework created in the form of the Mathematical Tasks Continuum can facilitate teachers thinking about the possible ways in which they could extend children’s academic work in primary school mathematics, so that the process of becoming numerate becomes more easily related to authentic activities that they are likely to experience in everyday life.

Under what conditions? Including students with learning disabilities within Australian classrooms

In Australian schools, "inclusion" is a term that is used to challenge a previously narrow focus on students with disabilities and their integration within and distribution amongst "mainstream" schools and classrooms. Nevertheless, this article argues that, as a concept, "inclusion" requires further broadening and deepening, particularly in arenas of practice, if it is to serve the interests of all students. Informed by notions of recognitive justice, the paper advocates rethinking inclusion to accommodate student differences in more socially just ways - emphasising students' contributions rather than their disabilities - and what this means for the organisation of classrooms and schools. Within the article, research data are focused primarily on students with learning disabilities and draw on twenty semi-structured interviews conducted with parents and teachers across six Australian state primary and secondary schools. Three sets of conditions are proposed as necessary for inclusive classroom and school processes: specifically, those that promote self-identity and respect, self expression and development and selfdetermination and decision-making.

Technology student learning preferences and the design of flexible learning programs

The learning preferences of three hundred and thirty eight technology students enrolled in sub-degree programs at an Australian institution of Technical and Further Education were tested using the Canfield Learning Styles Inventory (CLSI). The results have been interpreted in a learning preferences framework and provide supportive evidence for the preferences factors of print-nonprint, collaborative, dependent,and autonomous learning identified by Sadler-Smith & Riding (1999). Although there search focussed on learning preferences the analysis also indicated support for the Wholist-Analytic cognitive style proposed by Riding & Cheema (1991). Gender differences were shown for the Interest subscales of the CLSI. Age-group differences were shown for several Conditions of Learning and Modes of Learning subscales. Implications for the design of training programs, and the skills that may need to be developed in technology learners to enable effective use of flexible delivery, are also discussed.

Creating spaces for pedagogy : research as learning

As teacher-educators, the authors designed and implemented a small study that mapped teacher-education students' understandings of their own identities and how they made sense of ethnicity and class differences among their secondary students while on teaching rounds. While the authors did not set out to 'teach' their research participants, it was during the analysis of data from the research project, that they began to realise the potential of research to create opportunities for learning. In this paper the authors speculate on the 'conditions' of knowledge production and suggest that the dialogic nature of interviews and focus group discussions can offer pedagogical spaces for learning. Research designs that incorporate opportunities for participants to re-tell narratives over periods of time, may position participants as experts in knowledge production and may reposition them and researchers in more equitable power relations. The authors present an example of one participant's narrative together with their interpretations to explore how research potentially offers 'evidence' of learning. While this is tentative only, the authors suggest there is a need to create spaces for pedagogy in the design and execution of educational research.

Learning to minimize energy costs and maximize mechanical work in a bimanual coordination task

The authors addressed the hypothesis that economy in motor coordination is a learning phenomenon realized by both reduced energy cost for a given workload and more external work at the same prepractice metabolic and attentional energy expenditure. "Self-optimization" of movement parameters has been proposed to reflect learned motor adaptations that minimize energy costs. Twelve men aged 22.3 [+ or -] 3.9 years practiced a 90[degrees] relative phase, upper limb, independent ergometer cycling task at 60 rpm, followed by a transfer test of unpracticed (45 and 75 rpm) and self-paced cadences. Performance in all conditions was initially unstable, inaccurate, and relatively high in both metabolic and attentional energy costs. With practice, coordinative stability increased, more work was performed for the same metabolic and attentional costs, and the same work was done at a reduced energy cost. Self-paced cycling was initially below the metabolically optimal, but following practice at 60 rpm was closer to optimal cadence. Given the many behavioral options of the motor system in meeting a variety of everyday movement task goals, optimal metabolic and attentional energy criteria may provide a solution to the problem of selecting the most adaptive coordination and control parameters.

Adapting to market conditions : plagiarism, cheating and strategies for cohort customisation

This paper commences with themes discussed in two papers, “An
assessment strategy to help forestall plagiarism problems” (Kennedy,
2004) concerning how assessment strategies can be structured to
minimise plagiarism and “Paradigm shift: From traditional to on-line
education” (Gallie & Joubert, 2004) concerning the shifting focus
between teacher-centred and student-centred learning. The themes
raised are examined from the perspective of post-graduate course
delivery to predominantly international students within the context of
recognition of the specific needs of the student body. The themes are
then extended by considering the outcomes of a case study that
adapted methods of assessment with a view to improving outcomes
and reducing plagiarism and cheating.

Models of learning support in Victorian institutions: issues and implications

In recent years changes in policy, the spate of amalgamations of tertiary institutions, changes in secondary education and the move in institutions toward intemationalisation, have led to a diversification of student populations in Australian universities. One response to these changes has been the expansion of the provision of student learning support within universities. This study examined the models of such support in Victorian universities. The location of support units, sources of funding, communication between different units at the same institution and staff conditions were identified as core issues in how learning support is delivered. A suggested model for delivery of learning support is proposed.

Adopting web-based learning and teaching: a case study in higher education

Most universities worldwide are becoming distance education providers through adopting web-based learning and teaching via the introduction of learning management systems that enable them to open their courses to both on- and off-campus students. Whether this is an effective introduction depends on factors that enable and impede the adoption of such systems and their related pedagogical strategies. This study examines such factors related to adopting a learning management system in a large multicampus urban Australian university. The research method used case study approaches and purposively selected the sample consisting of innovative teaching academics from across the university, who used web-based approaches to teach both on- and off-campus learners. The data were analyzed using a combination of Rogers' theory of diffusion of innovations and actor-network theory and revealed a series of enabling and impeding factors faced by pioneering technology-adopter teaching academics, some of which are technology related while others are policy related and common to large multicampus institutions. The study found that safe adoption environments recognizing career priorities of academics are a result of the continuous negotiation between the evolving institution and its innovative and creative staff. The article concludes with a series of conditions that would form a safe, enabling, and encouraging environment for technology-adopter teaching academics in a large multicampus higher education setting.

Continuous professional learning through school based strategic planning

There is ample evidence that in many countries school science is in difficulty, with declining student attitudes and uptake of science. This presentation argues that a key to addressing the problem lies in transforming teachers’ classroom practice, and that pedagogical innovation is best supported within a school context. Evidence for effective change will draw on the School Innovation in Science (SIS) initiative in Victoria, which has developed and evaluated a model to improve science teaching and learning across a school system. The model involves a framework for describing effective teaching and learning, and a strategy that allows schools flexibility to develop their practice to suit local conditions and to maintain ownership of the change process. SIS has proved successful in improving science teaching and learning in primary and secondary schools. Experience from SIS and related projects, from a national Australian science and literacy project, and from system wide science initiatives in Europe, will be used to explore the factors that affect the success and the path of innovation in schools.

Teacher researchers - sustaining professional learning

In this paper we argue for an approach to professional development which supports teachers to engage in sustained intellectual inquiry and to investigate the conditions in their classrooms that might make a difference for students at risk of not succeeding at school. We focus on the work of one primary school teacher involved in the research project Teachers investigate unequal outcomes in literacy: Cross generational perspectives and explore the effects that redesigning her literacy curriculum had on her professional identity and the literacy outcomes for one of the children in her class. We suggest that the principles of building theory and practice, positioning teachers as agentive, and making a space for teachers to bring new – and renewed – professional knowledge to their work are principles of practice that energise and sustain teachers and their day-to-day classroom work. Such principles deserve attention, particularly at a time when teacher quality and professional standards are in the minds of policy makers.

Reflective practice in teacher education : learning from case studies of environmental education

This book is focused on ten action research and evaluative case studies in environmental education carried out by teacher educators and teachers. The case studies range across five European countries: Austria, Hungary, Italy, Sweden and Switzerland. They are followed by cross-case comparisons which explore issues emerging from the documented reflective practice: aims of environmental education in the educational policy context of the countries, their relationship to the disciplines and the traditional knowledge transmission position, the role of action research approaches for innovation and reflection, and institutional conditions of collaboration in teacher education. This international case study project is research based in adopting professional development approaches that are informed by action research principles. It represents examples of innovation that challenge established practice in schools and teacher education institutions. It provides study material for all who attempt to describe, change and improve their own education practices and who want to adopt an action research approach to professional or program development.

Learning from the margins : young women, social exclusion and education

This collection of ground-breaking international essays address the educational, social, work and biographical experiences of young women who are routinely constructed as ‘at risk’ and on the margins. Drawing on research from an international range of scholars, this book brings together important new perspectives on the gendered dimensions of social exclusion and educational marginalisation.

Reactions and responses : the concept of learning networks

In Victoria, Australia, the potential of networks to respond to issues of risk for young people has been identified. Learning networks have become a means to reform resulting in a number of policy strategies by the Victorian Labour government since 2000 and including School Networks and Local Learning and Employment Networks (LLENs). At the same time organic learning networks continue to form at a ‘grass roots’ level as communities respond to perceived needs. This presentation draws on research into the foundation, formation and practice of the Smart Geelong Region Local Learning and Employment Network (SGR LLEN) and considers the opportunities and tensions when government policies take up and institutionalise solutions in ways that potentially work against the conditions that make them effective, viable and sustainable.