Role of position 627 of PB2 and the multibasic cleavage site of the hemagglutinin in the virulence of H5N1 avian influenza virus in chickens and ducks

Highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza viruses have caused major disease outbreaks in domestic and free-living birds with transmission to humans resulting in 59% mortality amongst 564 cases. The mutation of the amino acid at position 627 of the viral polymerase basic-2 protein (PB2) from glutamic acid (E) in avian isolates to lysine (K) in human isolates is frequently found, but it is not known if this change affects the fitness and pathogenicity of the virus in birds. We show here that horizontal transmission of A/Vietnam/1203/2004 H5N1 (VN/1203) virus in chickens and ducks was not affected by the change of K to E at PB2-627. All chickens died between 21 to 48 hours post infection (pi), while 70% of the ducks survived infection. Virus replication was detected in chickens within 12 hours pi and reached peak titers in spleen, lung and brain between 18 to 24 hours for both viruses. Viral antigen in chickens was predominantly in the endothelium, while in ducks it was present in multiple cell types, including neurons, myocardium, skeletal muscle and connective tissues. Virus replicated to a high titer in chicken thrombocytes and caused upregulation of TLR3 and several cell adhesion molecules, which may explain the rapid virus dissemination and location of viral antigen in endothelium. Virus replication in ducks reached peak values between 2 and 4 days pi in spleen, lung and brain tissues and in contrast to infection in chickens, thrombocytes were not involved. In addition, infection of chickens with low pathogenic VN/1203 caused neuropathology, with E at position PB2-627 causing significantly higher infection rates than K, indicating that it enhances virulence in chickens.

Morphological, bioacoustical, and genetic variation in Miniopterus bats from eastern Madagascar, with the description of a new species

Recent molecular genetic work, combined with morphological comparisons, of Malagasy members of the bat genus Miniopterus (Family Miniopteridae), has revealed several cryptic species. Based on new specimens and associated tissues, we examine patterns of variation in the recently described species M. petersoni, the holotype of which comes from extreme southeastern Madagascar, and for which specimens from more northerly portions of eastern Madagascar were noted to show some morphological divergence from typical M. petersoni. On the basis of morphological and genetic (cytochrome b) characters we described a new species, M. egeri sp. nov. This taxon also shows bioacoustical differences from M. petersoni. Miniopterus egeri is widely distributed in the eastern portion of Madagascar across an elevational range from near sea level to 550 m. The specific status of moderately small Miniopterus from Montagne d'Ambre in the far north remains to be determined.

Advancing science and policy through a coordinated international study of physical activity and built environments: IPEN Adult methods

Background: National and international strategies to increase physical activity emphasize environmental and policy changes that can have widespread and long-lasting impact. Evidence from multiple countries using comparable methods is required to strengthen the evidence base for such initiatives. Because some environment and policy changes could have generalizable effects and others may depend on each country’s context, only international studies using comparable methods can identify the relevant differences. Methods: Currently 12 countries are participating in the International Physical Activity and the Environment Network (IPEN) study. The IPEN Adult study design involves recruiting adult participants from neighborhoods with wide variations in environmental walkability attributes and socioeconomic status (SES). Results: Eleven of twelve countries are providing accelerometer data and 11 are providing GIS data. Current projections indicate that 14,119 participants will provide survey data on built environments and physical activity and 7145 are likely to provide objective data on both the independent and dependent variables. Though studies are highly comparable, some adaptations are required based on the local context. Conclusions: This study was designed to inform evidence-based international and country-specific physical activity policies and interventions to help prevent obesity and other chronic diseases that are high in developed countries and growing rapidly in developing countries.

Metrics to assess ecological condition, change, and impacts in sandy beach ecosystems

Complexity is increasingly the hallmark in environmental management practices of sandy shorelines. This arises primarily from meeting growing public demands (e.g., real estate, recreation) whilst reconciling economic demands with expectations of coastal users who have modern conservation ethics. Ideally, shoreline management is underpinned by empirical data, but selecting ecologically-meaningful metrics to accurately measure the condition of systems, and the ecological effects of human activities, is a complex task. Here we construct a framework for metric selection, considering six categories of issues that authorities commonly address: erosion; habitat loss; recreation; fishing; pollution (litter and chemical contaminants); and wildlife conservation. Possible metrics were scored in terms of their ability to reflect environmental change, and against criteria that are widely used for judging the performance of ecological indicators (i.e., sensitivity, practicability, costs, and public appeal). From this analysis, four types of broadly applicable metrics that also performed very well against the indicator criteria emerged: 1.) traits of bird populations and assemblages (e.g., abundance, diversity, distributions, habitat use); 2.) breeding/reproductive performance sensu lato (especially relevant for birds and turtles nesting on beaches and in dunes, but equally applicable to invertebrates and plants); 3.) population parameters and distributions of vertebrates associated primarily with dunes and the supralittoral beach zone (traditionally focused on birds and turtles, but expandable to mammals); 4.) compound measurements of the abundance/cover/biomass of biota (plants, invertebrates, vertebrates) at both the population and assemblage level. Local constraints (i.e., the absence of birds in highly degraded urban settings or lack of dunes on bluff-backed beaches) and particular issues may require alternatives. Metrics - if selected and applied correctly - provide empirical evidence of environmental condition and change, but often do not reflect deeper environmental values per se. Yet, values remain poorly articulated for many beach systems; this calls for a comprehensive identification of environmental values and the development of targeted programs to conserve these values on sandy shorelines globally.

Conservation gone to the dogs : when canids rule the beach in small coastal reserves

On most developed coastlines, dunes backing ocean beaches constitute an urbanised landscape mosaic containing remnant pockets of small conservation areas. Urbanised beaches are also prime sites for domestic dogs, known to be environmentally harmful in many other settings. It is unknown, however, whether small, protected parcels of dune are adequate for biological conservation and whether dogs compromise their functional conservation objectives. Here we examine, for two small (2 km ocean boundary) reserves in Eastern Australia abutting an urban area, whether such small reserves can continue to function as effective conservation instruments on ocean beaches, using scavenger community composition and efficiency to assess ecosystem function. Two non-native species of canids—domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes)—were ubiquitous and numerous inside conservation areas, to the point of having become the most abundant vertebrate scavengers at the beach-dune interface, outcompeting native scavengers for wave-cast carrion. Dogs and foxes have effectively supplanted raptors, normally abundant on non-urban beaches in the region, and other avian scavengers, as the principal consumers of animal carcasses both inside the declared reserves and at the urban beach. Whilst the ecological threats posed by foxes are widely and intensively addressed in Australia in the form of fox-control programs, dog controls are less common and stringent. Our data emphasize, however, that managing domestic dogs may be required to the same extent in order to maintain key forms and functions in coastal reserves situated close to urban areas.

Golden opportunities: a horizon scan to expand sandy beach ecology

Robust ecological paradigms and theories should, ideally, hold across several ecosystems. Yet, limited testing of generalities has occurred in some habitats despite these habitats offering unique features to make them good model systems for experiments. We contend this is the case for the ocean-exposed sandy beaches. Beaches have several distinctive traits, including extreme malleability of habitats, strong environmental control of biota, intense cross-boundary exchanges, and food webs highly reliant on imported subsidies. Here we sketch broad topical themes and theoretical concepts of general ecology that are particularly well-suited for ecological studies on sandy shores. These span a broad range: the historical legacies and species traits that determine community assemblages; food-web architectures; novel ecosystems; landscape and spatial ecology and animal movements; invasive species dynamics; ecology of disturbances; ecological thresholds and ecosystem resilience; and habitat restoration and recovery. Collectively, these concepts have the potential to shape the outlook for beach ecology and they should also encourage marine ecologists to embrace, via cross-disciplinary ecological research, exposed sandy beach systems that link the oceans with the land.

Multifunctional polymer/porous boron nitride nanosheet membranes for superior trapping emulsified oils and organic molecules

Effective oil/water separation and removal of organic molecules from water are of worldwide importance for water source protection. Multifunctional sorbent materials with excellent sorption capacity, stability, and recyclability properties need to be developed. Here, flexible and multifunctional polymer/porous boron nitride nanosheets (BNNSs) membranes with high water permeability, exhibiting high effectiveness and stability in the purification of simulated wastewater tainted with either oil/water emulsion or organic molecules, are reported. Remarkably, the flexible nature of these porous membranes enables simplicity of operation for water remediation processing and ease of post-processing collection. The composite membrane also displays a remarkably high permeability of 8 × 10⁴ L μm m^-2 h^-1 bar^-1, roughly three orders of magnitude higher than pure polymer, and excellent filter efficiencies for the pharmaceuticals ciprofloxacin, chlortetracycline, and carbamazepine (up to 14.2 L g^-1 of BNNSs in the composite membrane for a concentration of 10 mg L^-1 ciprofloxacin) and the dye methylene blue (up to 9.3 L g^-1 of BNNSs in the composite membrane at a concentration of 30 mg L^-1). Exhausted membranes can be readily rejuvenated by simple washing with retention of their high-performance characteristics. The results demonstrate the potential efficacy and practicality of these membranes for water cleaning.

Re-framing values for a World Heritage future: what type of icon will K'gari-Fraser Island become?

K’gari-Fraser Island, the world's largest barrier sand island, is at the crossroads of World Heritage status, due to destructive environmental use in concert with climate change. Will K’gari-Fraser Island exemplify innovative, adaptive management or become just another degraded recreational facility? We synthesize the likely impact of human pressures and predicted consequences on the values of this island. World-renown natural beauty and ongoing biological and geological processes in coastal, wetland, heathland and rainforest environments, all contribute to its World Heritage status. The impact of hundreds of thousands of annual visitors is increasing on the island's biodiversity, cultural connections, ecological functions and environmental values. Maintaining World Heritage values will necessitate the re-framing of values to integrate socioeconomic factors in management and reduce extractive forms of tourism. Environmentally sound, systematic conservation planning that achieves social equity is urgently needed to rectify historical mistakes and update current management practices. Characterizing and sustaining biological refugia will be important to retain biodiversity in areas that are less visited. The development of a coherent approach to interpretation concerning history, access and values is required to encourage a more sympathetic use of this World Heritage environment. Alternatively, ongoing attrition of the islands values by increased levels of destructive use is inevitable.

Invasive carnivores alter ecological function and enhance complementarity in scavenger assemblages on ocean beaches

Species composition is expected to alter ecological function in assemblages if species traits differ strongly. Such effects are often large and persistent for nonnative carnivores invading islands. Alternatively, high similarity in traits within assemblages creates a degree of functional redundancy in ecosystems. Here we tested whether species turnover results in functional ecological equivalence or complementarity, and whether invasive carnivores on islands significantly alter such ecological function. The model system consisted of vertebrate scavengers (dominated by raptors) foraging on animal carcasses on ocean beaches on two Australian islands, one with and one without invasive red foxes (Vulpes vulpes). Partitioning of scavenging events among species, carcass removal rates, and detection speeds were quantified using camera traps baited with fish carcasses at the dune–beach interface. Complete segregation of temporal foraging niches between mammals (nocturnal) and birds (diurnal) reflects complementarity in carrion utilization. Conversely, functional redundancy exists within the bird guild where several species of raptors dominate carrion removal in a broadly similar way. As predicted, effects of red foxes were large. They substantially changed the nature and rate of the scavenging process in the system: (1) foxes consumed over half (55%) of all carrion available at night, compared with negligible mammalian foraging at night on the fox-free island, and (2) significant shifts in the composition of the scavenger assemblages consuming beach-cast carrion are the consequence of fox invasion at one island. Arguably, in the absence of other mammalian apex predators, the addition of red foxes creates a new dimension of functional complementarity in beach food webs. However, this functional complementarity added by foxes is neither benign nor neutral, as marine carrion subsidies to coastal red fox populations are likely to facilitate their persistence as exotic carnivores.

Functional replacement across species pools of vertebrate scavengers separated at a continental scale maintains an ecosystem function

Summary: The composition of species pools can vary in space and time. While many studies are focused on understanding which factors influence the make-up of species pools, the question to which degree biogeographic variation in species composition propagates to biogeographic variation in ecological function is rarely examined. If different local species assemblages operate in ways that maintain specific ecological processes across continents, they can be regarded as functionally equivalent. Alternatively, variation in species assemblages might result in the loss of ecological function if different species fulfil different functions, and thereby fail to maintain the ecological process. Here, we test whether ecological function is affected by differences in the composition of species pools across a continental scale, comparing a tropical with a temperate pool. The model systems are assemblages of vertebrates foraging on ocean beaches, and the ecological function of interest is the consumption of wave-cast carrion, a pivotal process in sandy shore ecosystems. We placed fish carcasses (n = 179) at the beach-dune interface, monitored by motion-triggered cameras to record scavengers and quantify the detection and removal of carrion. Scavenging function was measured on sandy beaches in two distinct biogeographic regions of Australia: tropical north Queensland and temperate Victoria. The composition of scavenging assemblages on sandy beaches varied significantly across the study domain. Raptors dominated in the tropics, while invasive red foxes were prominent in temperate assemblages. Notwithstanding the significant biogeographic change in species composition, ecological function - as indexed by carcass detection and removal - was maintained, suggesting strong functional replacement at the continental scale. Species pools of vertebrate scavengers that are assembled from taxonomically distinct groups (birds vs. mammals) and located in distinct climatic regions (temperate vs. tropical) can maintain an ecological process via replacement of species with comparable functional traits.

An integrative approach to characterize Malagasy bats of the subfamily Vespertilioninae Gray, 1821, with the description of a new species of Hypsugo

© 2015 The Linnean Society of London. Although important advances have been made in recent years in the taxonomy of different families and subfamilies of Malagasy bats, those belonging to the Vespertilioninae remain partially unresolved. Herein using a mitochondrial marker (cytochrome b) as the point of departure for 76 specimens of Malagasy vespers and appropriate African taxa, we diagnose the six taxa of this subfamily on the island by overlaying different morphological and bioacoustic characters on the clade structure of sequenced animals. The species include: endemic Neoromicia matroka, which is sister to African N. capensis; endemics N. malagasyensis and N. robertsi, which form sister species; a member of the genus Hypsugo, which is sister to African H. anchietae and described herein as new to science; Pipistrellus hesperidus for which Madagascar animals are genetically close but distinct from African populations of the same species; and endemic P. raceyi, which shows segregation of eastern (mesic) and western (dry) populations and its sister species relationships are unresolved. While the external and craniodental measurements, as well as bioacoustic variables, allow only partial differentiation of these six species of Vespertilioninae, molecular characters provide definitive separation of the taxa, as do male bacular morphology.