Still serving hot soup? Two hundred years of a charitable food sector in Australia: a narrative review

OBJECTIVE: Despite the importance of the charitable food sector for a proportion of the Australian population, there is uncertainty about its present and future contributions to wellbeing. This paper describes its nature and examines its scope for improving health and food security. METHODS: The review, using systematic methods for public health research, identified peer-reviewed and grey literature relevant to Australian charitable food programs (2002 to 2012). RESULTS: Seventy publications met the criteria and informed this paper. The sector includes food banks, more than 3,000 community agencies and 800 school breakfast programs. It provides food for up to two million people annually. The scope extends beyond emergency food relief and includes case management, advocacy and other support. Weaknesses include a food supply that is sub-optimal, resource limitations and lack of evidence to evaluate or support their work towards food security. CONCLUSIONS: The sector supports people experiencing disadvantage and involves multiple organisations, working in a variety of settings, to provide food for up to 8% of the population. The limits on the sector's capacity to address food insecurity by itself must be acknowledged so that civil society, government and the food industry can support sufficient, nutritious and affordable food for all.

Towards understanding the impacts of the pet food industry on world fish and seafood supplies

The status of wild capture fisheries has induced many fisheries and conservation scientists to express concerns about the concept of using forage fish after reduction to fishmeal and fish oil, as feed for farmed animals, particularly in aquaculture. However, a very large quantity of forage fish is being also used untransformed (fresh or frozen) globally for other purposes, such as the pet food industry. So far, no attempts have been made to estimate this quantum, and have been omitted in previous fishmeal and fish oil exploitation surveys. On the basis of recently released data on the Australian importation of fresh or frozen fish for the canned cat food industry, here we show that the estimated amount of raw fishery products directly utilized by the cat food industry equates to 2.48 million metric tonnes per year. This estimate, plus the previously reported global fishmeal consumption for the production of dry pet food suggest that 13.5% of the total 39.0 million tonnes of wild caught forage fish is used for purposes other than human food production. This study attempts to bring forth information on the direct use of fresh or frozen forage fish in the pet food sector that appears to have received little attention to this date and that needs to be considered in the global debate on the ethical nature of current practices on the use of forage fish, a limited biological resource.

Preventive strategies against weight gain and obesity

A well-resourced, comprehensive, population-based set of strategies is needed to
attenuate and eventually reverse the current trends of increasing obesity prevalence
now apparent in most countries. The Epidemiological Triad (host, vector,
environment) has proven to be a robust model for other epidemics and is applied
to obesity. Host-based strategies are primarily educational and these tend to
be most effective among people with higher incomes and higher educational
attainment. The main vectors for a high-energy intake are energy-dense foods and
drinks and large portion sizes and, for low energy expenditure, machines that
promote physical inactivity. Vector-based strategies that alter food formulation
can have a significant impact, particularly through influencing common, highvolume
foods. The increasingly ‘obesogenic’ environments are probably the main
driving forces for the obesity epidemic. There are many environmental strategies
that can influence the physical, economic, policy or socio-cultural environments,
but the evidence base for these potentially powerful interventions is small.
Children should be the priority population for interventions, and improving the
general socio-economic conditions for disadvantaged, marginalized or poor population
sectors is also a central strategy for obesity prevention. The key settings
for interventions are schools, homes, neighbourhoods, primary health care services
and communities. The key macroenvironments for interventions are the
transport and infrastructure sector, the media and the food sector.

Aquaculture : a newly emergent food production sector-and perspectives of its impacts on biodiversity and conservation

The fisheries sector in the course of the last three decades have been transformed from a developed country to a developing country dominance. Aquaculture, the farming of waters, though a millennia old tradition during this period has become a significant contributor to food fish production, currently accounting for nearly 50 % of global food fish consumption; in effect transforming our dependence from a hunted to a farmed supply as for all our staple food types. Aquaculture and indeed the fisheries sector as a whole is predominated in the developing countries, and accordingly the development strategies adopted by the sector are influenced by this. Aquaculture also being a newly emerged food production sector has being subjected to an increased level of public scrutiny, and one of the most contentious aspects has been its impacts on biodiversity. In this synthesis an attempt is made to assess the impacts of aquaculture on biodiversity. Instances of major impacts on biodiversity conservation arising from aquaculture, such as land use, effluent discharge, effects on wild populations, alien species among others are highlighted and critically examined. The influence of paradigm changes in development strategies and modern day market forces have begun to impact on aquaculture developments. Consequently, improvements in practices and adoption of more environmentally friendly approaches that have a decreasing negative influence on biodiversity conservation are highlighted. An attempt is also made to demonstrate direct and or indirect benefits of aquaculture, such as through being a substitute to meet human needs for food, particularly over-exploited and vulnerable fish stocks, and for other purposes (e.g. medicinal ingredients), on biodiversity conservation, often a neglected entity.

Determinants of green supply chain implementation in the food and beverage sector

Using a grounded theory approach, this paper extracts emerging concepts in the implementation of green supply chain management from case data of New Zealand food and beverage (F&B) companies. In search of factors that may lead to theory-building, the study relates case studies in fruit, juice, and dairy product companies through in-depth interviews with ranking general and line managers. We uncover the outline of a theoretical framework focusing on determinants of GSCM behaviour. These include strategic and operational planning; management structure, systems, and decision-making; management of people and company culture; and relationships with supply-chain members.

A proposed approach to monitor private-sector policies and practices related to food environments, obesity and non-communicable disease prevention

Private-sector organizations play a critical role in shaping the food environments of individuals and populations. However, there is currently very limited independent monitoring of private-sector actions related to food environments. This paper reviews previous efforts to monitor the private sector in this area, and outlines a proposed approach to monitor private-sector policies and practices related to food environments, and their influence on obesity and non-communicable disease (NCD) prevention. A step-wise approach to data collection is recommended, in which the first (‘minimal’) step is the collation of publicly available food and nutrition-related policies of selected private-sector organizations. The second (‘expanded’) step assesses the nutritional composition of each organization's products, their promotions to children, their labelling practices, and the accessibility, availability and affordability of their products. The third (‘optimal’) step includes data on other commercial activities that may influence food environments, such as political lobbying and corporate philanthropy. The proposed approach will be further developed and piloted in countries of varying size and income levels. There is potential for this approach to enable national and international benchmarking of private-sector policies and practices, and to inform efforts to hold the private sector to account for their role in obesity and NCD prevention.

Business associations and the food processing industry in Australia : how neoliberalism has reinforced employer collectivism

In this paper I argue that factors such as conflicting pressures for food regulation reform and continuing industry assistance programs have made conditions even more favourable for collective business interest representation in Australia's food processing sector. The push by firms for less onerous and more business-friendly regulation has run up against environmental and social pressures/or more rigorous regulatory controls, as awareness grows ofthe risks ofnew technologies. The case of the Australian Food and Grocery Council (AFGC) illustrates the issues. The extent to which this association participates directly in the design and implementation of public policy is indicative of a decline in the autonomy of politicians and the state bureaucracy vis-a-vis the ideology and interests of business.

Nutrition knowledge and food consumption: can nutrition knowledge change food behaviour?

The status and explanatory role of nutrition knowledge is uncertain in public health nutrition. Much of the uncertainty about this area has been generated by conceptual confusion about the nature of knowledge and behaviours, and, nutrition knowledge and food behaviours in particular. So the paper  describes several key concepts in some detail. The main argument is that 'nutrition knowledge' is a necessary but not sufficient factor for changes in consumers' food behaviours. Several classes of food behaviours and their causation are discussed. They are influenced by a number of environmental and intra-individual factors, including motivations. The interplay between motivational factors and information processing is important for nutrition promoters as is the distinction between declarative and procedural  knowledge. Consideration of the domains of nutrition knowledge shows that their utility is likely to be related to consumers' and nutritionists' particular goals and viewpoints. A brief survey of the recent literature shows that the evidence for the influence of nutrition knowledge on food behaviours is mixed. Nevertheless, recent work suggests that nutrition knowledge may play a small but pivotal role in the adoption of healthier food habits. The implications of this overview for public health nutrition are: (i) We need to pay greater attention to the development of children's and adults' knowledge frameworks (schema building); (ii) There is a need for a renewed proactive role for the education sector; (iii) We need to take account of consumers' personal food goals and their acquisition of procedural knowledge which will enable them to attain their goals; (iv) Finally, much more research into the ways people learn and use food-related knowledge is required in the form of experimental interventions and longitudinal studies.

Food and activity in out of school hours care in Victoria

Objective: To describe characteristics of the Victorian out of school hours care (OSHC) sector to assess its potential role in promoting healthy lifestyles to children and their families.

Design: Written questionnaires were sent to 1100 Victorian OSHC programs to collect information about the services, foods and activities offered to children, the training and resources utilised by staff and the type of information sent home to parents/guardians.

Subjects: A total of 426 Victorian OSHC coordinators completed questionnaires in the present descriptive study (39% response rate).

Setting: Out of school hours care provides care for 5–12 years olds before school, after school and/or during school holidays.

Results: Over 80% of coordinators reported offering fruit, breads, cereals, and milk and dairy products. One-third offer vegetables as part of meals or snacks. One-third reported offering cakes, biscuits and/or slices, and chips and/or pastries. About 17% reported offering water, whereas 24% reported offering cordial/soft drinks and fruit juice. Cooking was offered as an after-school activity by about half of those surveyed. Active games were common (62%) as were indoor active games and sports (36%). Sedentary activities were also commonplace (37–51%). Only about 30% of OSHC coordinators had participated in nutrition and/or physical activity training in the previous two years. Few OSHC programs sent home health information to parents/guardians.

Conclusion and application: Opportunities exist to help Victorian OSHC programs with nutrition and physical activity information, resources and training. Although the findings of the present study are specific to Victoria, they highlight the potential role of the growing OSHC sector to help improve the health of Australian children.

A systematic policy approach to changing the food system and physical activity environments to prevent obesity

As obesity prevention becomes an increasing health priority in many countries, including Australia
and New Zealand, the challenge that governments are now facing is how to adopt a systematic
policy approach to increase healthy eating and regular physical activity. This article sets out a
structure for systematically identifying areas for obesity prevention policy action across the food
system and full range of physical activity environments. Areas amenable to policy intervention can
be systematically identified by considering policy opportunities for each level of governance (local,
state, national, international and organisational) in each sector of the food system (primary
production, food processing, distribution, marketing, retail, catering and food service) and each
sector that influences physical activity environments (infrastructure and planning, education,
employment, transport, sport and recreation). Analysis grids are used to illustrate, in a structured
fashion, the broad array of areas amenable to legal and regulatory intervention across all levels of
governance and all relevant sectors. In the Australian context, potential regulatory policy
intervention areas are widespread throughout the food system, e.g., land-use zoning (primary
production within local government), food safety (food processing within state government), food
labelling (retail within national government). Policy areas for influencing physical activity are
predominantly local and state government responsibilities including, for example, walking and
cycling environments (infrastructure and planning sector) and physical activity education in schools
(education sector). The analysis structure presented in this article provides a tool to systematically
identify policy gaps, barriers and opportunities for obesity prevention, as part of the process of
developing and implementing a comprehensive obesity prevention strategy. It also serves to
highlight the need for a coordinated approach to policy development and implementation across
all levels of government in order to ensure complementary policy action.

The valuation of fast food outlets in Australia : methodology, analysis and reliability

Fast food outlets are a significant sub sector of the Hospitality and Tourism Property Market and a specialized form of business. This form of hospitality outlet has experienced significant growth and change in the last 20 years. Their value as an asset is therefore of significant interest to many involved in the tourism and hospitality industry, not least fast food operators or potential operators and their financiers. However, little attention has been given in professional and academic literature to valuation methodology, the analysis of the major components of asset value, and the underlying factors which influence asset value. As such the reliability of the valuation process could justifiably be questioned.
This paper sets out a working definition of a fast food outlet. It investigates the major determinants of value with respect to asset value and examines the accepted methods of valuation of fast food outlets in Australia as well as establishing the methods most commonly used. It clarifies the major components of asset value and examines to what extent these have changed with the changing business environment. In particular it isolates the role of Goodwill in assessing Going Concern Value. Sources of data include a comprehensive literature review and personal interviews with professionals involved in the valuation process. The paper concludes that an efficient valuation process requires that fast food outlets be considered as both a real estate and business investment. The contribution of both tangible and intangible assets to the value of the asset must be identified.

'Traffic-light' nutrition labelling and 'junk-food' tax : a modelled comparison of cost-effectiveness for obesity prevention

Introduction: Cost-effectiveness analyses are important tools in efforts to prioritise interventions for obesity prevention.
Modelling facilitates evaluation of multiple scenarios with varying assumptions. This study compares the cost-effectiveness of
conservative scenarios for two commonly proposed policy-based interventions: front-of-pack ‘traffic-light’ nutrition labelling
(traffic-light labelling) and a tax on unhealthy foods (‘junk-food’ tax).
Methods: For traffic-light labelling, estimates of changes in energy intake were based on an assumed 10% shift in consumption
towards healthier options in four food categories (breakfast cereals, pastries, sausages and preprepared meals) in 10% of adults. For the ‘junk-food’ tax, price elasticities were used to estimate a change in energy intake in response to a 10% price increase in seven food categories (including soft drinks, confectionery and snack foods). Changes in population weight and body mass index by sex were then estimated based on these changes in population energy intake, along with subsequent impacts on disability-adjusted life years (DALYs). Associated resource use was measured and costed using pathway analysis, based on a health sector perspective (with some industry costs included). Costs and health outcomes were discounted at 3%. The cost-effectiveness of each intervention was modelled for the 2003 Australian adult population.
Results: Both interventions resulted in reduced mean weight (traffic-light labelling: 1.3 kg (95% uncertainty interval (UI): 1.2;
1.4); ‘junk-food’ tax: 1.6 kg (95% UI: 1.5; 1.7)); and DALYs averted (traffic-light labelling: 45 100 (95% UI: 37 700; 60 100);
‘junk-food’ tax: 559 000 (95% UI: 459 500; 676 000)). Cost outlays were AUD81 million (95% UI: 44.7; 108.0) for traffic-light
labelling and AUD18 million (95% UI: 14.4; 21.6) for ‘junk-food’ tax. Cost-effectiveness analysis showed both interventions were
‘dominant’ (effective and cost-saving).
Conclusion: Policy-based population-wide interventions such as traffic-light nutrition labelling and taxes on unhealthy foods are
likely to offer excellent ‘value for money’ as obesity prevention measures.

The role of policy in improving diets : experiences from the Pacific obesity prevention in communities food policy project

There is global interest in using multisectoral policy approaches to improve diets, and reduce obesity and non-communicable disease. However, there has been ad hoc implementation, which in some sectors such as the economic sector has been very limited, because of the lack of quality evidence on potential costs and impacts, and the inherent challenges associated with cross-sectoral policy development and implementation. The Pacific Obesity Prevention in Communities food policy project aimed to inform relevant policy development and implementation in Pacific Island countries. The project developed an innovative participatory approach to identifying and assessing potential policy options in terms of their effectiveness and feasibility. It also used policy analysis methodology to assess three policy initiatives to reduce fatty meat availability and four soft drink taxes in the region, in order to identify strategies for supporting effective policy implementation.